. I . » 


in: 


/ / 4 ' r ! 

• y • t . * .? * 


• f ( ? j H • ,V " ■■!{•#*;.-' 

» , • < , it}? ;• T • ■ k • r * ■»<..* >i 

i i / y ■ ( f , ■ i ( ? i / * * * 

». * » .» .1 • j * • * ) .. ; r . * «■ * • 

• ; i * • ;• ; •'*- ? 1 / •. *,«. . » * / • 

* w' < ■ s / 7. it \ t ‘ ,■ ; i* • , ■*.;•, * \t'. t • l ■ V 

. .* • 1 /;-yf: •• -u - / /**?..• vO J ■ i> . / ; 

: .■ *' ; j / , i *• } \ t .t t * /i * 

■ t<- >':■'.-V : *•' 


; jW 

f f ' 4 


i . ( '•« 


. V . v’ 


i, * ■ * ■ i 

• • r f t > ;• •, 

f y i ,■ > 

< ,< ■» <*. , I / 

* , I JL 3 | ^ 


• ( y . 

i . i : > 




r 'H € V 9 V > 

/ * • * » f 


> i • 
i 


• ., i ( ,; 

; S . 1 ' 


• * % t 

v > v : 


» » i * / 


? *. i \ 


'i t • t l 1 / 

’ 5 ‘ 4 1 1 

(il I V v» ’ \ 


■ v,' * ■' ■ i * i ' ■■••• v \ ■ 7 p ,• di r. ■ •‘i { '!. j a 

‘ ■ ■ 1 • * j l a ? w ft/::} ",U) ■ i ;■? >» 

' •'• j • ■ • , • . »• i • . 

• • ! ,* / i ; • I.- i f. i{ (: \ \ f (; i > A, ! 

• ? * « t » t * 1 ■ • * • i •* <r * t < • • £ * * » • ) i : • 

' • M iblhn^hi i i hiIt’ll 

• ‘ - ’ . ' » ► ( 4 1, • ( • ' • i *1 > < U ’ ' > 1 M I I t (i ' > r* , 4i 4V J f t 

, > 4 \ {.'(!)■( VM. 'j 

. , \ ■ l V *, • > \ * ■. * i l * 

l • 1 ?..!»>.•* HW 4|>» ‘ivM * 4 / J I •• • J . ' » ‘V ' f « f ft f ( » ' * » \ ' 4 • ta if fl" 

* y . * * * ■, < 1 • ■ . « ! > V ' | • 4 • » « 4 1 l • \ i *1 f 4 l 3l ' 

, . j ; / it? ;• 

, 1 1 ’ ' ' 1 ' { ' 1 1 ? I \ > » • » ' f • 

■ . S • • . 1 ‘ i V 1 ’ • .1 * ■ i M 1 <4 . ' 1 i' -A t } • . . v > 4 4 

• ! > • » I • 'i'll I 1 • ' i . . • 1 , ■ 4 V ■ ' 4 i • • * , * , ■ - 4 

S ' ' . ; i ' * ' I \ ’ • * £ i ti » ^ \ ' • 4 • y « ■ < . • i » v ^ « 

i , v . * 1 11 . * > ; \ • s * v « ' • ■, I 4 f \ • 

’/ 1 i > J * • 1 i r\t i ! N y 4 t ' i I t v‘\J f * * 

. : \ , * > % > i v. i . > »• t ■ i f « - • ■ t • ■ • p t ;i » • ^ v • 11 ■ i 

4 1 I ' 4 * i • i • ; ' » •{ • » ' v IX • i 1 ' ! : , ’ • Y ' 

. •* 1 • i V. > / .V ' ■ ’ • » 5 * » i 4 V V > ‘ ‘ V v \ : i 

' • . ■ . 1 . ' • k a -tv ?♦ i% % i 4 m !: 4 f 5 ^ ' 

' * % . . ■ 1 • • . ( mIi Vi ii 1 . , • 




















\ 








































































































Mang fffr feting Common Sdjook 


HOW PLANTS GROW, 

A SIMPLE INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 

WITH 

A POPULAR FLORA, 

OR AN ARRANGEMENT AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON PLANTS, 
BOTH WILD AND CULTIVATED. 


ILLUSTRATED BY 500 WOOD ENGRAVINGS. 


By ASA GRAY, M.D., 

\i 7 

FISHER PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 


THIRD EDITION. 


NEW YORK: 

IVISON AND PHINNEY, 

48 and 50 Walker Street. 
CHICAGO: 

S. C. GRIGGS & CO., 39 and 41 Lake Street. 

1 8 5 9 . 



V 


' V 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by 
IVISON AND PHINNEY, 

in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. 


SOurtUt UNKNOWN 

MAY 2 8..1S25 


CAMBRIDGE : 

ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY METCALF AND COMPANY. 


A 


w 


f it r i $i r s t 


mow ®@w a 



]/ Consider the lilies of the field, 

I HOW THEY GROW : THEY TOIL NOT, NEITHER 
/r\ DO THEY SPIN : AND YET I SAY UNTO YOU, 
/ ' THAT EVEN SOLOMON IN ALL HIS GLORY 

WAS NOT ARRAYED LIKE ONE OF THESE.— 
Matthew vi. 28, 29. 

^ Our Lord’s direct object in tliis 
lesson of the Lilies was to convince 
the people of God’s care for them. 
j) Now, this clothing of the earth with 
plants and flowers — at once so beau¬ 
tiful and so useful, so essential to all 
ft animal life — is one of the very ways 
^ ~ in which He take^ care of his crea- 
/p tures. And when Christ himself di- 
dQi rects us to consider with attention the 
^ plants around us, — to notice how 




3 













2 


BOTANY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 


they grow, — how varied, how numerous, and how elegant they are, and with what 
exquisite skill they are fashioned and adorned, — we shall surely find it profitable 
and pleasant to learn the lessons which they teach. 

Now this considering of plants inquiringly and intelligently is the study of 
Botany. It is an easy study, when pursued in the right way and with diligent 
attention. There is no difficulty in understanding how plants grow, and are nour¬ 
ished by the ground, the rain, and the air; nor in learning what their parts are, 
and how they are adapted to each other and to the way the plant lives. And any 
young person who will take some pains about it may learn to distinguish all our 
common plants into their kinds,, and find out their names. 

Interesting as this study is to all, it must be particularly so to Young People. 
It appeals to their natural curiosity, to their lively desire of knowing about things: 
it calls out and directs (i. e. educates) their powers of observation, and is adapted 
to sharpen and exercise, in a very pleasant way, the faculty of discrimination. To 
learn how to observe and how to distinguish things correctly, is the greater part of 
education, and is that in which people otherwise well educated are apt to be sur¬ 
prisingly deficient. Natural objects, everywhere present and endless in variety, 
afford the best field for practice; and the study when young, first of Botany, and 
afterwards of the other Natural Sciences, as they are called, is the best train¬ 
ing that can be in these respects. This study ought to begin even before the 
study of language. For to distinguish things scientifically (that is, carefully and 
accurately) is simpler than to distinguish ideas. And in Natural History* the 
learner is gradually led from the observation of things, up to the study of ideas or 
the relations of things. 

This book is intended to teach Young People how to begin to read, with pleasure 
and advantage, one large and easy chapter in the open Book of Nature; namely, 
that in which the wisdom and goodness *of the Creator are plainly written in the 
Vegetable Kingdom.* 


* Natural History is the study of the productions of the earth in their natural state, whether minerals, 
plants, or animals. These productions make up what are called the Three Kingdoms of Nature , viz.: — 

1. The Mineral Kingdom , which consists of the Minerals (earths, metals, crystals, &c.) ; bodies not 
endowed with life. 

2. The Vegetable Kingdom , which comprehends Vegetables or Plants. 

3. The Animal Kingdom , which comprehends all Animals. 

The natural history of the mineral kingdom is named Mineralogy. 

The natural history of the vegetable kingdom is Botany, — the subject of this book. 

The natural history of the animal kingdom is named Zoology. 



BOTANY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 


3 


In the First Part of this book we proceed to consider, under four principal 
heads or chapters, — 

I. How Plants Grow, and what their Parts or Organs are, 

Chapter I. Page 5. 

The Parts of a Plant, 

Section I. Page 5. 

How Plants grow from the Seed, 

“ II. “ 10. 

How Plants grow Year after Year, 

“ III. « 23. 

Different Forms or Kinds of Roots, Stems, and Leaves, 

“ IV. “ 34. 

II. How Plants are Propagated or Multiplied in Numbers, 

Chapter II. Page 56. 

How Propagated from Bads, 

Section I. Page 56. 

How Propagated by Seeds, 

“ II. “ 58. 

Flowers : their Arrangement, their Sorts, &c., 

“ III. « 58. 

Fruit and Seed, 

" IV. “ 77. 


III. Why Plants Grow; what they are made for, and what 

they do, 

IV. How Plants are Classified, Named, and Studied, 

Classification, — as to the Plan of it, 

Names of Plants, 

The Natural System of Classification in Botany, 

How to study Plants by the Flora, in Part II., 


Chapter III. Page 85. 
Chapter IV. Page 93. 
Section I. Page 93. 
“ II. “ 94. 
“ III. “ 96. 
“ IV. “ 99. 


The Second Part of the book consists of a Popular Flora for Beginners, viz. 
a Classification and Description (according to the Natural System) of the Common 
Plants of the country, both Wild and Cultivated. 

Then follows a Dictionary of the peculiar terms which we have occasion to use 
in describing plants, or their parts, combined with a full Index to Part I. Every 
science, and every art or occupation, has terms or technical words of its own, and 
must have them. Without them, all would be confusion and guess-work. In Bot¬ 
any the number of technical words which a young student need to know is by no 
means great, and a little diligent study and practice will make them familiar. 

The first and most important thing for the student is, to know well the general 
plan of a plant and the way it grows; the parts plants consist of; the uses of the sev¬ 
eral parts; their general forms, and the names which are used to distinguish them. 
This is all very interesting and very useful in itself; and it is indispensable for study¬ 
ing plants with any satisfaction or advantage to find out their names, their proper¬ 
ties, and the family they belong to; i. e. to ascertain the kinds of plants. 


4 


BOTANY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 


Let the learners, or the class under their teacher, therefore, in the first place go 
carefully once through the First Part of the book, or at least through the first two 
chapters, verifying the examples and illustrations given, as far as possible, with their 
own eyes, and searching for other examples in the plants and flowers around them. 
Then they may begin to study plants by the Flora, or Second Part of the book, ac¬ 
cording to the directions given in the last section of Chapter IV. Whenever they 
meet with a word which they do not remember or clearly understand, they will look 
it out in the Index, and refer back to the place in the first part of the book where 
it is used and fully explained. Remember that every one has to creep before he 
can walk, and to walk before he can run. Only begin at the beginning; take pains 
to understand things as you go on, and cultivate the habits of accuracy and nice dis¬ 
crimination which this study is eminently adapted to inspire. Then each step will 
render the next one easy; you will soon make more rapid progress; will be able to 
ascertain with facility the names and the structure of almost all common plants; and 
will gradually recognize the various and interesting relationships which bind the 
members of the vegetable creation together in natural families, — showing them to 
be parts of one system; varied expressions, as it were, of the thoughts of their Di¬ 
vine Author; planned in reference to one another; and evidently intended to enlarge 
and enlighten our minds, as well as to gratify our senses, and nourish, clothe, warm, 
and shelter our bodies. So the study of Botany — the most fascinating branch of 
Natural History, especially for the young — becomes more and more interesting the 
more we learn of it, and affords a constant and unalloyed intellectual gratification. 

When young students have thoroughly mastered this little book, they will be well 
prepared to continue the study in the Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiol- 
ogy , and in the Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States , by the same 
author. 

The illustrations are referred to throughout by numbers, with “ Fig.” prefixed. 
The numbers occasionally introduced, within parenthesis-marks, and without any 
prefix, (as on p. 25, line 1, and p. 36, line 9,) are references to former paragraphs, 
where the subject, or the word used, has already been explained. 

*** The illustrations on the first page represent: — Fig. 1. Our commonest wild species of true Lily, 
viz. the Canada Lily. Fig. 2. The Chalcedonian Lily, a native of Palestine, with scarlet flowers, sup¬ 
posed to be “The Lily of the Field” to which our Saviour referred in the Sermon on the Mount 
Fig. 3. Lilies of the Valley, not true Lilies, but belonging to the Lily Family. 


CHAPTER I. 


HOW PLANTS GROW, AND WHAT THEIR PARTS OR ORGANS ARE. 


Section I. — The Parts of a Plant. 


4 . Morning-Glory. 


1. Plants are chiefly made up of three parts, namely, of 
Root, Stem, and Leaves. These are called the plant’s Organs , 
that is, its instruments. And as these parts are all that any 
plant needs for its growth, or vegetation, they are called the 
Organs of Vegetation. 

2. Plants also produce Flowers, from which comes the Fruit, 
and from this, the Seed. These take no part in nourishing the 
plant. Their use is to enable it to give rise to new individuals, 
which increase the numbers of that kind of plant, to take the 
place of the parent in due time, and keep up the stock; that 
is, to reproduce and perpetuate the species. So the Flower 
with its parts, the Fruit, and the Seed, are called the plant’s 
Organs of Reproduction. 

3. The different sorts of Lilies represented on the first page, 
and the common Morning-Glory on this page, show all the 
parts. 

4. The Root (Fig. 4, r) is the part which grows downwards 
into the ground, and takes in nourishment for the plant from the 
soil. It commonly branches again and again as it grows: its 
smaller branches or fibres are named Rootlets. Real roots never 
bear leaves, nor anything besides root-branches or rootlets. 

5. The Stem (Fig. 4, s ) is the part which grows upwards, 
and bears the leaves and blossoms. At certain fixed places the 
stem bears a leaf or a pair of leaves. 


6 


HOW TLANTS GROW, 


6. Leaves (Fig. 4, /, l) are generally flat find thin, green bodies, turning one face 
upwards to the sky, and the other downwards towards the ground. They make 
the Foliage. 

7. Tile Plant in Vegetation, We see that a plant has a body or trunk (in scien¬ 
tific language, an axis), consisting of two parts, — an upper and a lower. The 
lower is the Foot: this fixes the plant to the soil. The upper is the Stem: this 
rises out of the ground, and bears leaves, which are hung out on the stem in the 
light and air. The root takes in a part of the plant’s food from the soil: this the 
stem carries to the leaves. The leaves take in another part of the plant’s food 
from the air. And in them what the roots absorb from the ground, and what they 
themselves absorb from the air, are exposed to the sunshine and digested; that is, 
changed into something proper to nourish the plant. For there is no nourishment 
in earth, air, and water as they are; but vegetables have the power of making 
these into nourishment. And out of this nourishment it prepares, the plant makes 
more growth. That is, it extends the roots farther into the soil, and sends out 
more branches from them, increasing its foothold and its surface for absorbing; 
while, above, it lengthens the stem and adds leaf after leaf, or shoots forth branches 
on which still more leaves are spread out in the light and air. 

8. So the whole herb, or shrub, or tree, is built up. A tiny herb just sprouted 
from the seed and the largest tree of the forest alike consist of root, stem, and 
leaves, and nothing else. Only the tree has larger and more branching stems and 
roots, and leaves by thousands. 

9. The Plant in Reproduction. After having attended in this way to its nourish¬ 
ment and growth for a certain time, the plant sets about reproducing itself by seed. 
And for this purpose it blossoms. Many plants begin to blossom within a few 
weeks after springing from the seed. All our annuals, of which the Garden Morn¬ 
ing-Glory (Fig. 4) is one, blossom in the course of the summer. Biennials, such 
as the Carrot, Parsnip, Mullein, and the common Thistle, do not flower before the 
second summer; and shrubs and trees, and some herbs, do not begin until they are 
several years old. 

10. The object of the Flower is to form the Fruit. The essential part of the 
fruit is the Seed. And the essential part of a seed is the Germ or Embryo it con¬ 
tains. The Germ or Embryo is a little plantlet in the seed, ready to grow into 
a new plant when the seed is sown. Let us notice these organs one after the other, 
beginning with 


AND WHAT THEIR PARTS ARE. 


7 


11. The Flower. Flowers are most interesting to the botanist; who not only ad¬ 
mires them for their beauty, the exquisite arrangement and forms of their parts, and 
the wonderful variety they exhibit, but also sees in the blossoms much of the na¬ 
ture or character of each plant, and finds in them the best marks for distinguishing 
the sorts of plants and the family they belong to. So let the student learn at once 

12. What the Parts of a Flower are. A flower, with 
all the parts present, consists of Calyx , Corolla , Sta¬ 
mens, and Pistils. One from the Morning-Glory 
(Fig. 4,jf) will serve for an example. Here is one 
taken off, and shown of about the natural size, the 
corolla, Fig. 5, separated from the calyx, Fig. 6. 

The calyx and the corolla are the Floral Envelopes , 
or the leaves of the flower. They cover in the bud, 
and protect the stamens and pistils, which are the 
Essential Organs of the flower, because both of these 
are necessary to forming the seed. 

13. The Calyx — a Latin name for “flower-cup”—• 
is the cup or outer covering of the blossom (Fig. 6). 

It is apt to be green and leaf-like. 

14. The Corolla is the inner cup, or inner set of leaves, of the flower. It is very 
seldom green, as the calyx commonly is, but is “ colored,” i. e. of some other color 
than green, and of a delicate texture. So 
it is the most showy part of the blossom. 

Fig. 5 shows the corolla of the Morning- 
Glory whole. Fig. 7 is the same, split 
down and spread open to show 

15. The Stamens. These in this flower 
grow fast to the bottom of the corolla. 

There are five stamens in the Morning- 
Glory. Each stamen consists of two parts, 
namely, a Filament and an Anther. The 
Filament is the stalk; the Anther is a little 
case, or hollow body, borne on the top of the filament. It is filled with a powdery 
matter, called Pollen. Fig. 9 shows a separate stamen on a larger scale: /, the 
filament; a , the anther, out of which pollen is falling from a slit or long opening 
down each side. 







8 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


16 . The Pistils are the bodies in which the seeds are formed. They be¬ 
long in the centre of the flower. The Morning-Glory has only one pistil: 
this is sh<5wn, enlarged, in Fig. 8. The Rose and the Buttercup have a 
great many. A pistil has three parts. At the bottom is the Ovary , which 
becomes the seed-vessel. This is prolonged upwards into a slender body, 
called the Style. And this bears a moist, generally somewhat enlarged por¬ 
tion, with a naked roughish surface (not having any skin, like the rest), 
called the Stigma. Upon this stigma some of the pollen, or powder from 
the anthers, falls and sticks fast. And this somehow enables the pistils to 
ripen seeds that will grow. 

17. Let us now look at a stamen and a pistil from one 

W of the flowers of a Lily (like those shown on a reduced 

8 scale in Figures 1 and 2, on the first page), where all the 

parts are on a larger scale. Here is a Stamen (Fig. 9), with 
its stalk or Filament , /, and its Anther , a, discharging its yel¬ 
low dust or Pollen. And by its side is the Pistil (Fig. 

10), with its Ovary, ov. ; and this tapering into a Style, 
st. ; and on the top of this is the Stigma, stig. Now cut 
the ovary through, and it will be found to contain young 
seeds. Fig. 11 shows the ovary of Fig. 10 cut through 
lengthwise and magnified by a common hand magnifying- 
glass. Fig. 12 is the lower part of another one, cut in 
two crosswise. The young seeds, or more correctly the 
bodies which are to become seeds, are named Ovules. In the Lily these 
are very numerous. In the Morning-Glory they are few, only six. 

18. These are all the parts of the flower, — all that any flower has. 
But many flowers have not all these parts. Some have only one flower- 
cup or one set of blossom-leaves. Lilies appear to have only one set. Some 
have neither calyx nor corolla; some stamens have no filament, and some 
pistils have no style: for the style and the filament are not necessary 
parts, as the anther and the ovary and stigma are. These cases will all 
be noticed when we come to study flowers more particularly. Mean¬ 
while, please to commit to memory the names of the parts of the flower, 
Calyx, Corolla, Stamens, and Pistils, and the parts of these also, and 
learn to distinguish them in all the common blossoms you meet with, until 
they are as familiar as root, stem, and leaves are to everybody. 


/§k 






















AND WHAT THEIR PARTS ARE. 


9 



19. Notice, also, that the calyx and the corolla, one or both, often consist of 
separate leaves; as they do in the true Lilies. Each separate piece or leaf of a 
corolla is called a Petal: and each leaf or piece of a calyx is called a Sepal. 

20. The corolla, the stamens, and generally the calyx, fall off or wither away 
after blossoming; while the ovary of the pistil remains, grows larger, and becomes 

21. The Fruit. So that the fruit is the ripened ovary. It may be a berry, a 
stone-fruit, a nut, a grain, or a pod. The fruit of the Lily and also of the Morning- 
Glory is a pod. Here is the pod or fruit of the 
Morning-Glory (Fig. 4, fr. and Fig. 13), with 
the calyx remaining beneath, and the remains 

of the bottom of the style resting on its summit. v ^liiiii!illl] 

And Fig. 14 shows the same pod, fully ripe and 
dry, and splitting into three pieces that the 
seeds may fall out. This pod has three cavities 
(called Cells) in it; and in each cell two pretty large seeds. Lily-pods have three 
cells, as we may see in the ovary in the flower (Fig. 12), and many seeds in each. 

22. Seeds. These are the bodies produced by the ripened pistil, from which new 
plants may spring. Here (Fig. 15) is a seed of 
Morning-Glory, a little enlarged. Also two seeds 
cut through lengthwise in two different directions, 
and viewed with a magnifying-glass, to show what 
is inside (Fig 16, 17). The part of the seed that 
grows is 

23. The Embryo, or Germ. This is a little plantlet 

ready formed in the seed. In the Morning-Glory it 
is pretty large, and may readily be. got out whole 
from a fresh seed, or from a dried one after soaking 

it well in hot water. In Fig. 16 it is shown whole 

and flatwise in the seed, where it is a good deal 
crumpled up to save room. In Fig. 17, merely the thickness of the embryo is 
seen, edgewise, in the seed, surrounded by the pulpy matter, which is intended to 
nourish it when it begins to grow. In Fig. 18, the embryo is shown taken out 
whole, and spread out flat. In Fig. 19, its two little leaves are separated, and we 
plainly see what it consists of. It is a pair of tiny leaves on the summit of a little 

stem. The leaves (Fig. 19, c, c) are named Seed-leaves or Cotyledons; the little 

stem or stemlet is named the Radicle , r. 




10 


HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


Analysis of the Section. 

I. * Plants consist of two kinds of Organs : those of Vegetation ; what they are: 2. those of Repro¬ 
duction; what they are, what their use. 

4. The Root; what it is; rootlets. 5. The Stem; what it is, what it bears. 6. Leaves. 7. The 
Plant in Vegetation; action of the root, stem, and leaves: they change earth, air, and water into nour¬ 
ishment, and use this nourishment in growing. 8. Shrub or tree like an herb, only more extended. 

9. The plant reproduces itself, by seed; blossoming. 10. Object of flowers, fruit, seed: all intended 
for producing the germ or embryo; what this is. 

II. Flowers, why particularly interesting to the botanist. 12. What the parts of a flower are; Floral 
Envelopes; Essential Organs, why so called. 

13. Calyx. 14. Corolla. 15. Stamens; what they consist of; Filament; Anther; Pollen. 16. Pistils; 
how situated; parts of a pistil; Ovary, Style, Stigma; its use. 17. Stamens and pistil shown in 
another flower, and the parts explained: Ovules, what they are. 18. All these parts not always 
present; what ones often wanting. 19. Leaves of a corolla, called Petals; of a calyx, Sepals. 
20. What becomes of the parts of a blossom. 

21. Fruit, what it is, what it contains. 22. Seeds, what they are, what the part is that grows. 
23. Embryo or Germ; what it consists of: Cotyledons or Seed-leaves; Radicle or Stemlet. 


Section II. — How Plants grow from the Seed. 

24. Illustrated by the Morning-Glory. We now know what all the parts of a plant 
are; that a plant, after growing or vegetating awhile, blossoms; that flowers give 
rise to fruit; that the fruit contains one or more seeds ; and that the essential part 
of a seed is the embryo or germ of a new plant. To produce, protect, and nourish 
this germ, is the object of the flower, the fruit, and the seed. The object of the 
embryo is to grow and become a new plant. How it grows, is what we have now 
to learn. 

25. Life in a Seed. But first let us notice that it does not generally grow at once. 
Although alive, a seed may for a long while show no signs of life, and feel neither 
the summer’s heat nor the winter’s cold. Still it lives on where it falls, in this 
slumbering way, until the next spring in most plants, or sometimes until the spring 
after that, before it begins to grow. There is a great difference in this respect in 
different seeds. Those of Red Maple ripen in the spring, and start about the mid¬ 
dle of the summer. Those of Sugar Maple ripen in the fall, and lie quiet until the 
next spring. When gathered and laid up in a dry place, many seeds will keep alive 
for two, three, or several years; and in this state plants may be safely transported 


* The numbers are those of the paragraphs. 





HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


11 


all around the world. How long seeds will live is uncertain. The stories of seeds 
growing which have been preserved for two or more thousand years with Egyptian 
mummies, are not to he believed. But it is well known that Sensitive Plants have 
been raised from seeds over sixty years old. Few kinds of seeds will grow after 
keeping them for five or six years ; many refuse to grow after the second year; 
and some will not grow at all unless allowed to fall at once to the ground. There 
is no way of telling whether the germ of a seed is alive or not, except by trying 
whether it will grow, that is, will germinate . 

26. Germination and Early Growth. Germination is the sprouting of a plant from 
the seed. Having just illustrated the parts of a plant by the Morning-Glory, from 
the root up to the seed and the embryo in the seed, we may take this same plant 
as an example to show how a plant grows from the seed. If we plant some of the 
seeds in a fiower-pot, covering them lightly with soil, water them, and give them 
warmth, or if in spring we watch those which sowed themselves naturally in the 
garden the year before, and are now moistened by showers and warmed by sun¬ 
shine, we shall soon see how they grow. And what we learn from this one kind 
of plant will be true of all ordinary plants, but with some differences in the circum¬ 
stances, according to the kind. 

27. The seed first imbibes some moisture through its coats, swells a little, and, 
as it feels the warmth, the embryo gradually wakes from its long and deep sleep, 
and stretches itself, as it were. That is, the tiny stem of the embryo lengthens, 
and its end bursts through the coats of the seed; at the same time, the two leaves 
it bears grow larger, straighten themselves, and so throw off the seed-coats as a 
loose husk; this allows the seed-leaves to spread out, as leaves naturally do, and 
so the seedling plantlet stands revealed. Observe the whole for yourselves, if pos¬ 
sible, and compare with these figures. Fig. 19 is repeated from p. 9, and repre¬ 
sents the embryo taken out of the seed, straightened, enlarged, and the two leaves 
a little opened. Fig. 16 and 17 show how the embryo lies snugly packed away in 
the seed. Fig. 20 shows it coming up, the seed-leaves above just throwing off the 
coats or husk of the seed. Fig. 21 is the same, a little later and larger, with the 
seed-leaves spread out in the air above, and a root well formed beneath. And Fig. 
22 is the same a little later still. 

28. At the very beginning of its growth, the end of the little stem which first 
comes out of the seed turns downward and points into the earth. From it the root 
is formed, which continues downwards, branching as it grows, and burying itself 


12 


HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


Cotyledons or seed-leaves. 


' Radicle or stemlet. 



Plumule. 


more and more in the soil. The other end of the stem always turns upwards, and, 
as the whole lengthens, the seed-leaves are brought up out of the ground, so that 
they expand in the light and air, — which is the proper place for leaves, as the 
dark and damp soil is for the root. 

29. What makes the root always grow downwards into 
the ground, and the stem turn upwards, so as to rise out 
of it, we no more know, than we know why newly-hatched 
ducklings take to the water at once, while chickens avoid 
it, although hatched under the same fowl and treated just 
alike. But the fact is always so. 

And although we know not how , 
the why is evident enough; for the root is thereby at once 
placed in the soil, from which it 
has to absorb moisture and other 
things, and the leaves appear in 
the air and the light, where they 
are to do their work. 

30. Notice how early the seed¬ 
ling plant is complete, that is, 
becomes a real vegetable, with 
all its parts, small as the whole 
thing is (Fig. 21). For it al¬ 
ready possesses a root, to connect 
it with the ground and draw up 
what it needs from that; a stem, 
to elevate the foliage into the 
light and air; and leaves, to take 
in what it gets directly from the 
air, and to digest the whole in the light (as explained in the last section, Par. 7). 
That is, it already has all the Organs of Vegetation (Par. 1), all that any plant 
has before blossoming, so that the little seedling can now take care of itself, and 
•just as any larger plant lives —upon the soil and the air. And all it has 



live 


to do in order to become a full-grown plant, like Fig. 4, is to increase the size of 
its oigans, and to produce more of them; namely, more stem with more leaves 
above, and more roots below. We have only to watch our seedling plantlets a 
week or two longer, and we shall see how this is done. 






IIOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


13 


31. The root keeps on growing under ground, and sending off more and more 
small branches or rootlets , each one adding something to the amount of absorbing 
surface in contact with the moist soil. The little stem likewise lengthens upwards, 
and the pair of leaves on its summit grow larger. But these soon get their full 
growth; and we do not yet see, perhaps, where more are to come from*. But now 
a little bud, called the Plumule , appears on the top of the stem (Fig. 22), just be¬ 
tween the stalks of the two seed-leaves; it enlarges and unfolds into a leaf; this 
soon is raised upon a new piece of stem, which car¬ 
ries up the leaf, just as the pair of seed-leaves were 
raised by the lengthening of the radicle or first joint 
of stem in the seed. Then another leaf appears on 
the summit of this joint of stem, and is raised upon 
its own joint of stem, and so on. Fig. 23 shows the 
same plant as Fig. 22 (leaving out the root and the 
lower part of the stem), at a later stage; c, c } are the 
seed-leaves ; l is the next leaf, which came from the 
plumule of Fig. 22, now well raised on the' second 
joint of stem ; and l' is the next, still very small and 
just unfolding. And so the plant grows on, the whole 
summer long, producing leaf after leaf, one by one, 
and raising each on its own joint of stem, arising 
from the summit of the next below; — as we see in 
Fig. 4, at the beginning of the chapter, where many joints of stem have grown 
in this way (the first with a pair of leaves, the rest with one apiece), and still 
there are some unfolding ones at the slender young summit. 

32. How the Seedling is nourished at the Beginning. Growth requires food , in plants 
as well as in animals. To grow into a plant, the embryo in a seed must be fed 
with vegetable matter, or with something out of which vegetable matter can be 
made. When a plant has established itself, — that is, has sent down its roots into 
the soil, and spread out some leaves in the air, — it is then able to change mineral 
matter (viz. earth, air, and water) which it takes in, into vegetable matter, and so 
to live and grow independently. But at the beginning, before its organs are 
developed and established in their proper places, the forming plant must be sup¬ 
plied by ready-made vegetable matter, furnished by the mother plant. On this 
supply the embryo germinating from the seed feeds and grows, —just as the new- 



14 


HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


born animal does upon the mother’s milk, or as the chick developing in the egg 
does upon the prepared nourishment the parent had laid up for the purpose in the 
yolk. 

33. Tear open a fresh Morning-Glory seed, or cut a dried one in two, as in 
Fig. 17, and this supply will be seen, in the form of a rich and sweetish jelly-like 
matter, packed away with the embryo, and filling all the spaces between its folds. 
This is called the Albumen of the seed (that being the Latin name of the white of 
an egg) ; and this is what the embryo feeds upon, and what enables its little 
stemlet (Fig. 19, r) to grow, and form its root downwards, and carry up and ex¬ 
pand its seed-leaves (c, c) in the air, and so become at once a plantlet (Fig. 21), 
with root, stem, and leaves, able to take care of itself, just as a chicken does when 
it escapes from the shell. 

34. This moist nourishing jelly would not keep long in that state. So, when 
the seed ripens and dries, it hardens into a substance like thin dried glue or gum, 
which will keep for any length of time. And whenever the seed is sown, and 
absorbs moisture, this matter softens into a jelly again, or gradually liquefies, and 
the seed-leaves crumpled up among it drink it in at every pore. A portion is con¬ 
sumed in their growth, while the rest is carried into the growing stemlet, thence into 
the root forming at one end of it, and into the bud (or plumule, Fig. 22) which 
soon appears at the other end of it, — supplying the materials for their growth. 

35. Notice the same thing in Wheat, Oats, or Indian Corn. The last is the best 
example, because the grain is so large that all the parts may be clearly seen with¬ 
out magnifying. The abundant milk or soft and rich pulp of green corn is the 
same as the jelly in the seed of the Morning-Glory; namely, it is the albumen of 
the seed, provided for the embryo (the chit or germ) to feed upon when growth 
begins. See Figures 44, 45, &c. This nourishing food (as we well know it to be) 
was produced by the mother-plant during the summer, was accumulated in the 
stalk at flowering-time, in the form of sugar, or syrup, was conveyed into the 
flowers and forming seeds ; a part was used to form the germ or embryo, and the 
rest was stored up with it in the seed, to serve for its growth into a plantlet the 
next spring. That it may keep through the winter, or longer, the sweet milk is 
changed into a starchy pulp, which hardens as the grain ripens into the firm and 
dry mealy part (or albumen ), which here makes the principal bulk of the seed. 
But when sown, this meal softens and is slowly changed back into sugar again. 
And this, dissolved in the watei\the seed takes in, makes a sweet sap, which the 


HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


15 


embryo imbibes and feeds on as it sprouts. That the meal or starch of the grain 
is actually changed into sugar at this time is clearly shown by malting, which is 
merely causing heaps of grain to sprout a little, and then destroying the life of 
the embryo by dry heat; when the grain (now malt) is found to be sweet, and 
to contain much sugar. j 

36. The nourishment which the mother-plant provides in the seed is not always 
stored up outside of the embryo. In many cases it is deposited in the embryo 
itself, most commonly in the seed-leaves. Then the seed consists of nothing but 
the embryo within its coats. Maple-seeds are of this sort. Fig. 24 represents a 
seed of Red Maple in the lower part of the winged seed- 
/vessel, which is cut away so as to show it in its place. Fig. 
(fill/ r \ 25 is the seed a little magnified, and with the coats cut away, 

\M\\( bringing to view its embryo coiled up within and filling the 

seed completely. Fig. 26 is the embryo taken out, and a 
little unfolded; below is the radicle or stemlet; above are the 
two seed-leaves partly crumpled together. 
Fig. 27 is the embryo when it has straight¬ 
ened itself out, thrown off the seed-coats, 
and begun to grow. Here the seed-leaves 
are rather thick when they first unfold ; this 
is on account of the nourishing matter which 
was contained in their fabric, and which is 
used mainly for the earliest growth of the 
radicle or stemlet, and for the root formed 
at its lower end, as we see in the next fig¬ 
ure (Fig. 28: a , the radicle or stemlet of the embryo ; b, b, the two seed-leaves; 
c , the root). By this time the little stock of nourishment is exhausted. But the 
plant, having already a root in the soil and a pair of leaves in the air, is able to 
shift for itself, to take in air, water, &c., and by the aid of sunshine on its foliage 
to make the nourishment for its future growth. In a week or two it will have 
made enough to enable the next step to be taken. Then a little bud appears at 
the upper end of the stemlet, between the two seed-leaves, and soon it shows 
the rudiments of a new pair of leaves (Fig. 28, d) ; a new joint of stem forms to 
support them (Fig. 29); this lengthens just as the stemlet of the embryo did, and 
so the plantlet gets a second pair of leaves, raised on a second joint of stem 
2 



16 


HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


springing from the top of the first (Fig. 30). Meanwhile the root has grown 
deeper into the soil, and sent out branches. Having now more roots below, and, 
above, a pair of leaves besides the seed-leaves to work with, the seedling plantlet 




all the sooner makes veg¬ 
etable matter enough to 
form a third pair of leaves 
and raise them on a third 
joint of stem (as in Fig. 

31) ; and so it goes on, 
step by step. This nour¬ 
ishment in the embryo of the Red-Maple seed was a few weeks before in the 
trunk of the mother tree, as a sweet sap, that is, as Maple-sugar . 

37. Variations Of the Plan Of Growth. In the Morning-Glory, after the pair of 
seed-leaves, only one leaf is found upon each joint of stem (see Fig. 23 and 4). 
In the Maple there is a pair of leaves to every joint of stem, as long as it grows. 
In the Morning-Glory the food in the seed, for the growth to begin with, was 
stored up outside of the embryo ; in the Maple it was stored up in it , that is, in 
its seed-leaves. The plan is evidently the same in both; but there are differ- 










HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


17 


ences in the particulars. While the same kind of plant always grows in exactly 
the same way, different kinds differ almost as much at the beginning as they do 
afterwards. The great variety which we observe among the herbs and shrubs 
and trees around us, — in foliage, flower, fruit, and everything, — gives to vegeta¬ 
tion one of its greatest charms. We should soon tire of plants or flowers made 
all after one exact pattern, however beautiful. We enjoy variety. But the bota¬ 
nist finds a higher interest in all these differences than any one else, because he 
discerns one simple plan running through all this diversity, and everywhere re¬ 
peated in different forms. He sees that in every plant there is root growing down¬ 
wards, connecting the vegetable with the soil; stem rising into the light and air, 
and bearing leaves at regular places, and then blossoms, and that the parts of one 
kind of blossom answer to those of another, only differing in shape; and he de¬ 
lights in observing how the tens of thousands of kinds of plants all harmonize with 
each other, like the parts of concerted music, — plainly showing that they were all 
contrived, as parts of one system, by one Divine Mind. 

38. So in the beginning, in the growth of plants from the seed, although the 
general plan is the same in all, the variations are many and great. The plan is 
well shown in the two seedling plants which have served for illustration, namely, 
the Morning-Glory and the Maple. Let us now notice some of the variations, as 
exhibited in a few very common plants. A great deal may be learned from the 
commonest plants, if we will only open our eyes to see them, and “ consider how 
they grow,” and why they differ in the way they do. Take, for instance, 

39. The Bcaib Soak a bean in warm water (if a fresh one is not to be had) 
and remove the coats. The whole kernel consists 
of an embryo, as seen in Fig. 32. And almost 
the whole bulk of this embryo consists of two 
thick pieces, c, c, which are the cotyledons or 
seed-leaves. We may make out the plan of the 
whole thing better by spreading these thick seed- 
leaves wide open, as in Fig. 33. Here the two 
thick seed-leaves are seen from the inside, c, c; 
they are connected with the upper end of a stemlet, which is the radicle, r; and 
above this already shows the bud or plumule, p. 

.. 40. So the embryo of the Bean is the same in plan as that of the Maple (Fig. 
27), only the stemlet is much shorter in proportion, and the seed-leaves very much 
larger and thicker. What is the reason of this difference ? 


p 



18 


HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


41. The seed-leaves of the Bean are thickened by having so much nourishment 
stored up in them, so much of it that they make good food for men. And the 
object of this large supply is that the plant may grow more strongly and rapidly 

from the seed. It need not and it does not wait, as 
the Maple and the Morning-Glory do, slowly to make 
the second pair of leaves; but is able to develop 
these at once. Accordingly, the rudiments of these 
next leaves may be seen in the seed before growth 
begins, in the form of a little bud (Fig. 33, p ), ready 
to grow and unfold as soon as the thick seed-leaves 
themselves appear above ground (Fig. 34), and soon 
making the first real foliage (Fig. 35). For the 
seed-leaves of the Bean are themselves so thick and 
ungainly, that, although they turn green, they hardly 
serve for foliage. But, having given up their great 
stock of nourishment to the forming root and new 
leaves, and enabled these to grow much stronger and 
faster than they otherwise could, they wither and fall 
off. It is nearly the same in 

42. The Cherry, Almond, &C. Fig. 36 is an Almond 
taken out of the shell, soaked a little, and the thin 
seed-coat removed. The whole 
is an embryo, consisting of a 
pair of large and thick seed- 
leaves, loaded with sweet nour¬ 
ishment. These are borne on a 
very short radicle, or stemlet, which is seen at the lower end. 

Pull off one of the seed-leaves, as in Fig. 37, and you may 
see the plumule or little bud, 
p, ready to develop leaves 
and stem upwards, while the 
other end of the radicle 
grows downward and makes 
the root; the rich store of 
nourishment in the seed- 











HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


19 


leaves supplying abundant materials for the growth. A cherry-seed is just like an 
almond, only on a smaller scale. Fig. 38 is the embryo of a Cherry, with the 
very thick seed-leaves a little separated. Fig. 39 is the same developed into a 
young plantlet. Fed by the abundant nourishment in the seed-leaves, it shoots up 
its stem and unfolds three or four leaves before the Maple (Fig. 28, 29) or the 
Morning-Glory (Fig. 20-22) 
would have made any. It is 
the same in the Chestnut and 
the Beech. In these, as in the 
Cherry and the Bean, the thick 
seed-leaves, which make the 
whole kernel, come up, turn 
green, and become thinner as 
they give up their load of 
nourishment to the growing 
parts; they evidently try to 
become useful green leaves; 
but having been used for hold¬ 
ing nourishment, they remain 
too thick and clumsy for foli¬ 
age, and they soon die or fall 
off. But in 

43. The Horsechestnut, the 
Acorn, and the Pea, the seed- 
leaves are so very thick, and 
so heavily loaded, that they 
never undertake to serve any 
other purpose than that of 
feeding the other parts as they 
grow. So they remain in the 
shell or husk; and, as they 
are not to rise out of the 
ground, there is no need for 
their stemlet, or radicle, to 
lengthen, except enough to get 




41 




20 


HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


out of the seed, and let the root form from the lower end of it, while the plumule 
develops from its upper end directly into a strong leafy stem. Fig. 40 is an acorn 
cut through lengthwise. The whole kernel consists of a pair of very thick seed- 
leaves, loaded with starch, &c., and completely enclosing the very small and short 
stemlet, or radicle, seen at the bottom. Fig. 41 is the acorn with the seedling 
Oak growing from it; the seed-leaves remaining in the shell, but feeding the strong 
root which grows downwards and the stem which shoots so vigorously upwards. 

44. Acorns and liorsechestnuts may not always be found germinating; but in 
the Pea we have a familiar case of this way of growing, which may be observed 
at any season by planting a few peas. Fig. 42 is a pea with the seed-coat taken 
off, after soaking. Here the seed-leaves are so thick that the pair makes a little 
ball; and the stout radicle or stemlet appears on the side turned to the eye. 
Fig. 43 shows the plantlet growing. The whole seed remains in the soil; the 
plumule, well nourished by the great stock of food in the buried seed-leaves, alone 
rises out of the ground as a strong shoot, bearing an imperfect scale-like leaf upon 
each of its earlier joints, and then producing the real leaves of the plant, while the 
radicle at the same time, without lengthening itself, sends down three or four roots 
at once. So the whole plant is .quickly established, and all the early growth is 
made out of food provided foi* it the year before by the mother plant, and stored 
up in the seed. One more illustration we may take from 


45. Indian Com. Here the 
food provided for the early 
growth is laid up partly in the 
embryo, but mostly around it. 
Fig. 44 is a grain cut through 
flat-wise; Fig. 45, another cut 
through the middle across its 
thickness; and Fig. 46, the embryo, or germ, of another grain, taken out 
whole, — which may readily be done in green corn, or in an old grain 
after soaking it for some time in warm water. The separate embryo is 
placed to match that which is seen, divided, in the seed; r is the radicle ; 
p, the plumule; and c, the seed-leaf or cotyledon, which in this plant is 
single; while in all the foregoing there was a pair of seed-leaves. The 
greater part of the grain is the meal, or albumen, the stock of nourish¬ 
ment outside of the embryo. In germinating, this meal is slowly changed 




47 





HOW PLANTS GROW PR031 THE SEED. 


21 


into sugar, and dissolved in the water which is absorbed from the ground ; the coty¬ 
ledon imbibes this, and sends it into the radicle, r, to make the root, and into the 
plumule, p, enabling it to develop the set of leaves, 
wrapped up one within another, of which it consists, 
and expand them one after another in the air. Fig. 

47 shows a sprouting grain, sending down its first 
root, and sending up the plumule still rolled together. 

Fig. 48 is the same, more advanced, having made a 
whole cluster of roots, and unfolded two or three 
leaves. Nourished abundantly as it is, both by the 
maternal stock in the grain, and by what these roots 
and leaves obtain and prepare from the soil and the 
air, the young corn gets a good start, is ready to avail 
itself of the summer’s heat, to complete its vegeta¬ 
tion, to blossom, and to make and lay up the great 
amount of nourishment which we gather in the crop. 

46. The Onion. The cotyledon in Indian Corn, and 
most other plants which have only one, stays under 
ground. In the Onion it comes up and makes the 
first leaf, — a slender, thread-shaped one, — and in¬ 
deed it carries up the light seed on its summit. In 
Indian Corn, all the early joints of stem remain so 
short as not to be seen ; although later it makes long 
joints, carrying up the upper leaves to some distance 
from one another. In the Onion, on the contrary, the 
stem never lengthens at all, but remains as a thin 
plate, broader than it is long, with the roots springing from one side of it and the 
sheathing bases of the leaves covering it on the other. 

47. Number of Cotyledons or Seed-Leaves. Indian Corn (Fig. 46) and all such 
kinds of grain-plants, the Onion, Lilies, and the like, have only one seed-leaf or 
cotyledon to their embryo; therefore they are called Monocotyledonous Plants, 
and the embryo is called monocotyledonous , — a long word, meaning “with one 
cotyledon.” 

48. The embryo of the Morning-Glory (Fig. 19), of the Maple (Fig. 27), 
Bean (Fig. 32-34), Almond, Peach, and Cherry (Fig. 36-38), Oak (Fig. 40), 






22 


HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 


Pea (Fig. 42), and of all such plants, is dicotyledonous , that is, has a pair of 
cotyledons, or seed-leaves, which is what the word means. Therefore all such 
plants are called Dicotyledonous Plants. 

49. Pine-trees, and plants like them, generally have more than 
two cotyledons, in a circle; so their embryo is said to be poly- 
cotyledonous ; meaning “ with several or many cotyledons.” Fig. 
49 is a magnified view of a Pine-seed, divided lengthwise, and 
showing the long and straight embryo lying in the middle of the 
albumen. The slender lower part is the radicle or stemlet; the 
upper part is a cluster of cotyledons or seed-leaves, in a close 
bundle; three of them can be seen as it lies, and there are as 
many more behind. Fig. 50 is this embryo as it comes up from 
the seed, its cotyledons (six in number) expanding at once into 
a circle of slender, needle-shaped leaves. 

50. It is a pity these three words are so long; for the pupil 
should fix them thoroughly in his memory; because these differ¬ 
ences in the embryo, or plantlet in the seed, run through the whole 
life of the plant, and show themselves in many other differences 

which very strikingly distinguish one class of plants from another. Let it be re¬ 
membered, therefore, that 

Monocotyledonous Plants , or Monocotyledons , are those which have only one 
cotyledon or seed-leaf to their embryo. 

Dicotyledonous Plants , or Dicotyledons , are those which have a pair of cotyledons 
or seed-leaves to their embryo. 

Polycotyledonous Plants, or Poly cotyledons, are those which have more than one 
pair of cotyledons or seed-leaves to their embryo. 

Analysis of the Section. 

24. Flowers produce Fruit; this, the Seed; of this the essential part is the Embryo which grows. 

25. It is alive; but lies dormant awhile. How long seeds may live. 

26. Germination, the beginning of growth; what is needful for it. 27. What takes place, illustrated 
from the Morning-Glory. 28. How the stemlet grows by lengthening, and carries up the seed-leaves: 
how the root is formed and grows downwards. 29. Instinct of each part to turn in its proper direc¬ 
tion ; and why. 30. The little seedling a complete plant in miniature; its parts. 31. How it goes on 
to grow: growth of the root; rootlets; of the stem. The Plumule or Bud. Development of the stem * 
piece by piece, each with its leaf. 

32. How the seedling is nourished at the beginning. Growth requires food. 33. How this is sup¬ 
plied by a deposit in the seed; Albumen. 34. It is kept in a solid form until the embryo starts, and is 






HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. 


23 


then dissolved, turned into sugar, &c., and feeds the plantlet. 35. This illustrated in Wheat and 
Indian Corn. 36. Or else the same nourishment is deposited in the embryo itself, in its seed-leaves; 
illustrated by the Maple. 37, 38. Variations of the same plan of growth in different plants. The 
Maple compared with the Morning-Glory. 39 - 45. A great abundance of food stored up in the embryo 
causes a rapid and strong growth; illustrated by the Bean; 42. by the Cherry, Alm ond, &c.; 43,44. by 
the Horsechestnut, Acorn, Pea, &c.; in these the seed-leaves do not come up in germinating; why. 
45. In Indian Corn; the stock of food partly in the strong embryo, partly outside of it. 46. The 
Onion; its seed-leaf lengthens and comes up, but the stem never lengthens at all. 

47. Number of cotyledons or seed-leaves in different kinds of plants; Monocotyledonous. 48. Dico¬ 
tyledonous ; Polycotyledonous. 60. These differences always accompany other differences in the 
plant; Monocotyledonous, Dicotyledonous, and Polycotyledonous Plants. 


Section III.— How Plants grow Year after Year. 

51. They Grow on as they Began. The seedling has all the organs that any plant 
has, — even the largest and oldest, — excepting what belongs to blossoms: it has 
all it needs for its life and growth, that is, for vegetation. It has only to go on and 
produce more of what it already has, — more roots beneath to draw.up more 
moisture from the soil, and more stem above, bearing more leaves, exposing a 
larger surface to the light and air, in which to digest what is taken in from the soil 
and the air, and turn it into real nourishment, that is, into the stuff which vege¬ 
tables are made of. So, as fast as a young plant makes new vegetable material, it 
uses it for its growth; it adds to its root below, and to its stem above, and unfolds 
a new leaf or pair of leaves on every joint. Each joint of stem soon gets its full 
length, and its leaf or pair of leaves the full size; and now, instead of growing, 
they work, or prepare nourishment, for the growth of the younger parts forming 
above. 

52. Simple Stems, In this way, piece by piece, the stem is carried up higher 
and higher, and its leaves increased in number; and the more it grows, the more it 
is able to grow, — as we see in a young seedling, beginning feebly and growing 
slowly for a while, but pushing on more and more vigorously in proportion to the 
number of leaves and roots it has produced. In this way, by developing joint after 
joint, each from the summit of its predecessor, a Simple Stem is made. Many 
plants make only simple stems, at least until they blossom, or for the first year. 
The Lilies, figured on the first page, and corn-stalks, are of this kind. Fig. 51 is 
a sort of diagram of the simple stem of Indian Corn, divided into its component 
pieces, to show how it consists of a set of similar growths, each from the summit 


24 


HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. 


of the preceding one. There are old trees even, which consist of a simple, un¬ 
branched stem. Palm-trees, such as our Southern Palmetto (Fig. 79) are of this 
kind. But more commonly, as stems grow they multiply them¬ 
selves by forming 

53. Branches, or side-shoots. These are formed both by 
roots and by stems. Roots generally branch much sooner than 
stems do. See Fig. 4, 20, 30, &c. 

54. Roots send off their branches from any part of the 
main root, or start from any part of a stem lying on or in the 
soil; and they have no particular arrangement. 

55. But the branches of stems spring only from particular 
places, and are arranged on a regular plan. They arise from 
the Axil of a leaf and nowhere else, except in some few pe¬ 
culiar cases. The axil (from a Latin word meaning the 
armpit) of a leaf is the hollow or angle, on the upper side, 
where the leaf is attached to the stem. As branches come 
only from the axils of leaves, and as leaves have a perfectly 
regular and uniform arrangement in each particular plant, the 
places where branches will appear are fixed beforehand by the 
places of the leaves, and they must follow their arrangement. 
In the axils, commonly one in each, branches first appear in 
the form of 

56. Buds. A Bud is an undeveloped stem or branch. If 
large enough to have its parts distinguishable, these are seen 
to be undeveloped or forming leaves; and large buds which 
are to stand over winter are generally covered with protect¬ 
ing scales, — a kind of dry, diminished leaves. 

57. Terminal Bud. So the plumule or first shoot of the 
embryo (see Fig. 22, &c.) is a bud. But this first bud makes 
the main stem, and its growth, week after week, or year after 

year, carries on the main stem. Palms (as Fig. 79) grow in this way, by this bud 
only. Being always on the end of the stem, that is, terminating the stem, it is 
called the Terminal Bud. 

58. Axillary Buds. But the buds which are to form branches appear on the 
sides of the stem; and since they are situated in the axils of the leaves, as just ex- 












THE ARRANGEMENT OF BRANCHES. 


25 


plained (55), they are named Axillary Buds. (See Fig. 52, 53.) These buds 
grow into branches, just as the first or terminal bud of the seedling grows to make 
the main stem. 

59. The Arrangement of Branches, therefore, follows that of the axillary buds, and 
this that of the leaves. 

Now leaves are placed 
on the stem in two 
principal ways; they 
are either alternate or 
opposite. They are al¬ 
ternate when they fol¬ 
low one after another, 
there being only one 
to each joint of the 
stem, as in Morning- 
Glory (Fig. 4, all after 
the seed-leaves), and 
in the Linden or Bass¬ 
wood (Fig. 52), as well 
as the greater part of 
trees or plants. They 

are opposite when there are two leaves upon each joint of stem, as in Horsechest- 
nut, Lilac, and Maple (Fig. 31, 53); one leaf in such cases being always exactly 
on the opposite side of the stem from its fellow. Now in the axil of almost every 
leaf of these trees a bud is soon formed, and in general plainly shows itself before 
summer is over. In Fig. 52, «, a , «, a, are the axillary buds on a twig of Bass¬ 
wood,— they are alternate , like the leaves, — and t is the terminal bud. Fig. 53, 
a twig of Red Maple, has its axillary buds opposite , like the leaves; and on the 
very summit is the terminal bud. Next spring or sooner, the former grow into al¬ 
ternate branches; the latter grow into opposite branches. These branches in their 
turn form buds in the axils of their leaves, to grow in time into a new generation 
of similar branches, and so on, year after year. So the reason is plain why the 
branching or spray of one tree or bush differs from that of another, each having its 
" own plan, depending upon the way the leaves are arranged on the stem. 

60. The spray (or ramification ) of trees and shrubs is more noticeable in winter, 






26 


HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. 


when most leaves have fallen. Even then we can tell how the leaves were placed, 
as well as in summer. We have only to notice the leaf-scars: for each fallen leaf 
has left a scar to mark where its stalk separated from the stem. And in most 
cases the hud above each scar is now apparent or conspicuous, ready to grow into 
branches in the spring, and showing plainly the arrangement which these are to 

have. Here, for instance, is a last year’s shoot of 
Horsechestnut (Fig. 54), with a large terminal bud on 
its summit, and with very conspicuous leaf-scars, Is; 
and just above each is an axillary bud, b. Here the 
leaves were opposite each other; so the buds are also, 
and so will the branches be, unless one of the buds on 
each joint should fail. Fig. 55 is a similar shoot of a 
Hickory, with its leaf-scars (l s ) and axillary buds 
(5) alternate , that is, single on the joints and one after 
another on different sides of the stem; and these buds 
when they grow will make alternate branches. 

61. The branching would be more regular than it 
is, if all the buds grew. But there is not room for 
all; so only the stronger ones grow. The rest stand 
ready to take their place, if those happen to be killed. 
Sometimes there are more buds than one from the same 
axil. There are three placed side by side on those 
shoots of Red Maple which are going to blossom. 
There are several in a row, one above another, on 
some shoots of Tartarean Honeysuckle. 

62. The appearance of plants, the amount of their branching, and the way in 
which they continue to grow, depend very much upon their character and duration. 

63. The Duration of Plants of different kinds varies greatly. Some live only for a 
few months or a few weeks; others may endure for more than a thousand years. 
The most familiar division of plants according to their duration and character is 
into Herbs , Shrubs, and Trees. 

64. Herbs are plants of soft texture, having little wood in their stems, and in our 
climate dying down to the ground, or else dying root and all, in or before winter. 

65. Shrubs are plants with woody stems, which endure and grow year after year, 
but do not rise to any great height, say to not more than four or five times the 



MODE OF LIFE IN ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS. 


27 


height of a man. And if they reach this size, it is not as a single main trunk, but 
by a cluster of stems all starting from the ground. 

66. Trees are woody plants rising by a trunk to a greater height than shrubs. 

67. Herbs are divided, according to their character and duration, Into Annuals , 
Biennials , and Perennials . 

68. Annuals grow from the seed, blossom, and die all in the same season. In 
this climate they generally spring from the seed in spring, and die in the autumn, 
or sooner if they have done blossoming and have ripened their seed. Oats, Barley, 
Mustard, and the common Morning-Glory (Fig. 4) are familiar annuals. Plants 
of this kind have fibrous roots, i. e. composed of long and slender threads or fibres. 
Either the whole root is a cluster of such fibres, as in Indian Corn (Fig. 48), Barley 
(Fig. 56), and all such plants; or when there is a main or tap root, 
as in Mustard, the Morning-Glory, &c., this branches off into slen¬ 
der fibres. It is these fibres, and the slender root-hairs which are 
found on them, that mainly absorb moisture and other things from 
the soil; and the more numerous they are, the more the plant can 
absorb by its roots. As fast as nourishment is received and pre¬ 
pared by the roots and leaves, it is expended in new growth, par¬ 
ticularly in new stems or branches and new leaves, and finally in 
flowers, fruit, and seed. The latter require a great deal of nour¬ 
ishment to bring them to perfection, and give nothing back to the 
plant in return. So blossoming and fruiting weaken the plant very 
much. Annual plants usually continue to bear flowers, often in great numbers, 
upon every branch, until they exhaust themselves and die, but not until they have 
ripened seeds, and stored up in them (as in the mealy part of the grain of Corn, 
&c., Fig. 44, 45) food enough for a new generation to begin growth with. 

69. Biennials follow a somewhat different plan. These are herbs which do not 
blossom at all the first season, but live over the winter, flower the second year, and 
then die when they have ripened their seeds. The Turnip, Carrot, and Parsnip, 
the Beet, the Radish (Fig. 57), and the Celandine, are familiar examples of bien¬ 
nial plants. 

70. The mode of life in biennials is to prepare and store up nourishment through 
the first season, and to expend it the next season in flowering and fruiting. Accord¬ 
ingly, biennials for the first year are nearly all root and leaves; these being the 

organs by which the plant works, and prepares the materials it lives on. Stem 




28 


HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. 


they must have, in order to hear leaves; for leaves do not grow on roots. But 
what stem they make is so very short-jointed that it rises hardly any; so that 

the leaves seem to spring from the top of the root, 
and all spread out in a cluster close to the ground. 
As the plant grows, it merely sends out more and 
more branches of the root into the soil beneath, and 
adds more leaves to the cluster just above, close to the 
surface of the warm ground, and well exposed to the 
light and heat of the sun. Thus consisting of its two 
working organs only, — root and leaves, — the young 
biennial sets vigorously to work. The moisture and 
air which the leaves take in from the atmosphere, 
and all that the roots take from the soil, are digested 
or changed into vegetable matter by the foliage while 
exposed to sunshine; and all that is not wanted by 
the leaves themselves is generally carried down into 
the body of the root and stored up there for next 
year’s use. So the biennial root becomes large and 
heavy, being a storehouse of nourishing matter, which 
man and animals are glad to use for food. In it, in 
the form of starch, sugar, mucilage, and in other nourishing and savory products, 
the plant (expending nothing in flowers or in show) has laid up the avails of its 
whole summer’s work. For what purpose ? This plainly appears when the next 
season’s growth begins. Then, fed by this great stock of nourishment, a stem 
shoots forth rapidly and strongly, divides into branches, bears flowers abundantly, 
and ripens seeds, almost wholly at the expense of the nourishment accumulated in 
the root, which is now light, empty, and dead; and so is the whole plant by the time 
the seeds are ripe. 

71. By stopping the flowering, biennials can sometimes be made to live another 
year, or for many years, or annuals may be made into biennials. So a sort of 
biennial is made of wheat by sowing it in autumn, or even in the spring and keep¬ 
ing it fed down in summer. But here the nourishment is stored up in the leaves 
rather than in the roots. 

72. The Cabbage is a familiar and more striking example of a biennial in which 
the store of nourishment, instead of being deposited in the root, is kept in the 



57 

Radish. 


MODE OF LIFE IN PERENNIALS. 


29 


leaves and in the short stem or stalk. These accordingly become thick and nutri¬ 
tious in the Cabbage, just as the root does in the Turnip, or the base of the short 
stem alone in Kohlrabi, or even the flower-stalks in 
the Cauliflower; all of which belong to the same 
family, and exhibit merely different ways of accom¬ 
plishing the same result. 

73. Perennials are plants which live on year after 
year. Shrubs and trees are of course perennial. So 
are many herbs; but in these only a portion gener¬ 
ally survives. Most of our perennial herbs die down 
to the ground before winter; in many species all but 
certain separate portions under ground die at the 
close of the year; but some parts of the stem con¬ 
taining buds are always kept alive to renew the 
growth for the next season. And a stock of nour¬ 
ishment to begin the new growth with is also pro¬ 
vided. Sometimes this stock is laid up in the roots, 
as for instance in the Peony, the Dahlia (Fig. 58), 
and the Sweet Potato. Here some thick roots, filled Dahlia-roots. 

with food made by last year’s vegetation, nourish in 
spring the buds on the base of the stem just above 
(«, a), enabling them to send up stout leafy stems, 
and send down new roots, in some of which a new 
stock of food is laid up during summer for the next 
spring, while ther exhausted old ones die off*; and so 
on, from year to year. 

74. Sometimes this stock of food is laid up in par¬ 
ticular portions of branches 
of the stem itself, formed 
under ground, and which 
contain the buds; as in the 
Ground Artichoke and the 
Potato. Here these parts, 
with their buds, or eyes, are all that live over winter. These thickened ends of 
stems are called Tubers . In Fig. 59, a is a tuber of last year, now exhausted and 




Ground-Artichoke. 






30 


HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. 


withering away, which grew in spring by one of its buds to make the stem (b) bear¬ 
ing the foliage of the season. This sends out some branches under ground, which 

in the course of the sea¬ 
son thicken at the end 
as they receive a stock 
of nourishment prepared 
by this year’s foliage, 
and become new tubers 
(e, a forming one; d, d, 
well-grown tubers of the 
season), to live over 
winter and make the 
next year’s growth. 

75. Because they live 
under ground, these tu¬ 
bers are commonly sup¬ 
posed to be roots; but 
they are not, as any one 
may see. Their eyes 
are buds; and the little 
scales behind the eyes 
answer to leaves; while 
roots bear neither buds 
nor leaves. The fibrous roots which grow from these subterranean branches are 
very different in appearance from under-ground stems, as is plain to see in the 
Potato-plant. Fig. 60 shows 
a few of the real roots, as 
well as several branches of 
the stem, with potatoes form¬ 
ing in all stages at their tips. 

Fig. 61 is one of these form¬ 
ing potatoes magnified, show¬ 
ing a little scale behind each 
eye which answers to a leaf. Fig. 62 is a part of a slice through an eye, more 
magnified, to show that the eye is really a bud, covered with little scales. 



Solomon’s-Seal. 


61 62 











MODE OF LIFE IN PERENNIALS. 


31 


76. In some perennial herbs, prostrate stems or branches 
under ground are thickened with this store of nourishment for 
their whole length, making stout Rootstocks , as they are called; as 
in Sweet Flag, Solomon’s Seal (Fig. 63), and Iris, or Flower-de- 
Luce (Fig. 64). These are perennial, and grow on a little way 
each year, dying off as much behind after a while; and the newer 
parts every year send out a new set of fibrous roots. The buds 
which rootstalks produce, and the leaves or the scales they bear, 
or the scars or rings which mark where the old leaves or scales 
have fallen or decayed away, all plainly show that rootstocks are 
forms of stem, and not roots. The large round scars on the root- 
stock of Solomon’s Seal, which give the plant its name, (from 
their looking like impressions of a seal,) are the places from 
which the stalk bearing the leaves and flowers of each season 
has fallen off in autumn. Fig. 63, a is the bud at the end, to 
make the growth above ground next spring; b is the bottom of 
the stalk of this season; c, the scar or place from which the stalk 
of last year fell; d, that of the year before; 
and e, that of two years ago. 

77. Finally, the nourishment for the next 

year’s growth may be deposited in the leaves 
themselves. Sometimes it occupies all the 
leaf, as in the Houseleek (Fig. 65) and other iS. 

fleshy plants. Here the close ranks of the 
thickened leaves are wholly above ground. 
Sometimes the deposit is all in the lower 
end of the leaf, and on the ground, or un¬ 
derneath, as in common Bulbs. Take a 
White Lily of the gardens, for example, in 
the fall, or in spring before it sends up the 
stalk of the season (Fig. 66). From the 
bottom of the bulb, roots descend into the 
soil to absorb moisture and other matters 
•from it, while, above, it sends up leaves to digest and convert these matters into 
real nourishment. As fast as it is made, this nourishment is carried down to the bot- 
3 



65 

Houseleek. 







32 


HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. 


tom of each leaf, which is enlarged or thickened for containing it. These thick 
leaf-bases, or scales, crowded together, make up the bulb; all but its very short stem, 
concealed within, which bears these scales above, and sends down the roots from 
underneath. Fig. 67 shows one of the leaves of the season, taken 
off, with its base cut across, that the thickness may be seen. After 
having done its work, the blade dies off, leaving the thick base as 
a bulb-scale. Every year one or more buds in the centre of the 
bulb grow, feeding on the food laid up in the scales, and making 
the stalk of the season, which bears the flowers, as in Fig. 1, 2. 

78. An Onion is like a Lily-bulb, only each scale or leaf-base 
is so wide that it enwraps all within, making coat after coat. 


67 

Bulb and lower Leaves of a Lily. Leaf, lower end cut off. 

79. In shrubs and trees a great quantity of nourishment, made the summer 

before, is stored up in the young wood and bark of the shoots, the trunk, and the 
roots. Upon this the buds feed the next spring; and this enables them to develop 
vigorously, and clothe the naked branches with foliage in a few days; or with blos¬ 
soms immediately following, as in the Horsechestnut; or with blossoms and foliage 
to'gether, as in Sugar Maple ; or with blossoms before the leaves appear, as in Red 
Maples and Elms. The rich mucilage of the bark of Slippery Elm, and the sweet 
spring sap of Maple-trees, belong to this store, deposited in the wood the previous 
summer, and in spring dissolved and rapidly drawn into the buds, to supply the early 
and sudden leafing and blossoming. % 

80. In considering plants, as to “ how they grow,” it should be noticed that all of 
them, from the Lily of the field to the tree of the forest, teach the same lesson of 
industry and provident preparation. No great result is attained without effort, and 


































WHY THEY GROW SO VIGOROUSLY IN SPRING. 


33 


long preceding labor. Not only was the tender verdure which, after a few spring 
showers and sunny days, is so suddenly spread out over field and forest, all pre¬ 
pared beforehand, — most of the leaves, even, made the summer before, and snugly 
packed away in winter-buds, — but the nourishment which enables them to un¬ 
fold and grow so fast was also prepared for this purpose by the foliage of the year 
before, and laid up until it was wanted. The grain grows with vigor, because fed 
with the richest products of the mother plant, the results of a former year’s vegeta¬ 
tion. The Lily-blossom develops in all its glory without toil of its own, because all 
its materials were gathered from the earth and the air long before, by the roots 
and the leaves, manufactured by the latter into vegetable matter, and this stored 
up for a year or two under ground in the bottoms of the leaves (as starch, jelly, 
sugar, &c.), and in many cases actually made into blossoms in the dark earth, where 
the flower-buds lie slumbering in the protecting bulb through the cold winter, and in 
summer promptly unfold in beauty for our delight. 

Analysis of the Section. 

51. The seedling is a complete plant on the simplest scale ; in growth it merely increases its parts, 
and multiplies them in number, as fast as it makes materials for growth. 52. Simple stems, how 
formed and carried up, piece by piece. 53. Branches : 54. of Roots, how they differ from those, 
55. of Stems. Where these arise from ; in what form they appear. 56. Buds, what they are. 
57. Terminal Bud, what it makes. 58. Axillary Buds ; why so named ; what they make. 59. How 
branches are arranged, and what their arrangement depends upon: alternate; opposite. 60. The spray 
and buds of shrubs and trees in winter; Leaf-scars. 61. Why branches are not as regular and as many 
as the buds or leaves. 

62,63. The Duration and Character of Plants as affecting the way they grow. 64. Herbs. 65. Shrubs. 
66. Trees. 67. Herbs are annuals, biennials, or perennials. 

68. Annuals ; their mode of life ; character of their roots, intended only for absorbing; duration, &c. 

69. Biennials ; how defined ; examples. 70. Character of their roots, and illustrations of their 
mode of life ; the first year, food made and stored up ; the second year, food expended, for what pur¬ 
pose. 71. How biennials may sometimes be made perennial, and annuals biennial. 72. The store of 
food may be kept in the leaves, or in the stems above ground ; Cabbage, &c. 

73. Perennials ; what they are ; mode of life of perennial herbs from year to year ; accumulation of 
food in roots. 74. Accumulation of food in under-ground branches ; Tubers, as of Ground Artichoke. 
75. Potato illustrated. 76. Accumulation in whole stems or branches under ground ; Rootstocks. 
77. Accumulation of food in leaves, above ground, as in Houseleek ; or in the bottoms of leaves, usu¬ 
ally under ground ; Bulbs ; as of Lily, and, 78. of Onion. 

79. Food, how stored up in shrubs and trees, and for what purpose ; used in leafing and blossoming 
in spring. 80. A lesson taught by vegetation. 


34 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


Section IV. — Different Forms or Kinds of Roots, Stems, and Leaves. 

81. The Organs of Vegetation, or those that have to do with the life and growth 
of a plant, are only three, Root, Stem, and Leaf. And the plan upon which plants 
are made is simple enough. So simple and so few are the kinds of parts that one 
would hardly expect plants to exhibit the almost endless and ever-pleasing diver¬ 
sity they do. This diversity is owing to the wonderful variety of forms under which, 
without losing their proper nature, each of these three organs may appear. 

82. The study of the different shapes and appearances which the same organ 
takes in different plants, or in different parts of the same plant, comparing them 
with one another, is called Morphology, and is one of the most interesting parts of 
Botany. But in this book for young beginners, we have only room to notice the 
commonest forms, and those very briefly, — although sufficiently to enable stu¬ 
dents to study all common plants and understand botanical descriptions. Those 
who would learn more of the structure and morphology of plants should study the 
Lessons in Botany. 

§ 1. Of Roots . 

83. The Root is the simplest and least diversified of the three organs. Yet it 
exhibits some striking variations. 

84. As to origin, there is the primary or original root, formed from the embryo 
as it grows from the seed, and the branches it makes. Annuals, biennials, and 
many trees are apt to have only such roots. But when any portion of their stems 
is covered by the soil, it makes secondary roots. These are roots which spring 
from the sides of the stem. Every one knows that most stems may be made to 
strike root when so covered and having the darkness and moisture which are gen¬ 
erally needful for roots. Perennial herbs and most shrubs strike root naturally in 
this way under ground. All the roots of plants raised from tubers, rootstocks, and 
the like (74-76), are of this sort, and also of plants raised from slips or cuttings. 
In warm and damp climates there are likewise many 

85. Aerial Roots, namely, roots which strike from the stem in the open air. In 
summer we often find them springing from the joints of the stalks of Indian Coi;n, 
several inches above the soil. Some of these reach the ground, and help to feed 
the plant. In the famous Banyan-tree of India aerial roots on a larger scale strike 
from the spreading branches, high up in the air, grow down to the ground and into it, 


KINDS OP ROOTS. 


35 



and so make props or additional trunks. Growing in this way, there is no limit to 
the extent of the branches, and a single Banyan will spread over several acres of 
ground and have hundreds of trunks all made from aerial roots. 

86. Aerial Rootlets, or such roots on a small scale, are produced by several woody 
vines to climb by. English Ivy, our Poison Ivy, and Trumpet-Creeper are well- 
known cases of the sort. 

87. Air-PlailtS. Roots which never reach the ground are also produced by certain 
plants whose seeds, lodged upon the boughs or trunks of trees, high up in the 
air, grow there, and make an 
Epiphyte , as it is called (from 
two Greek words meaning 
a plant on a plant), or an 
Air-Plant. The latter name 
refers to the plant’s getting 
its living altogether from the 
air; as it must, for it has no 
connection with the ground 
at any time. And if these 
plants can live on air, in this 
way, it is easy to understand 
that common vegetables get 
part of what they live on di¬ 
rectly from the air. In warm 
countries there are many very 
handsome and curious air- 
plants of the Orchis family. 

A great number are culti¬ 
vated in hot-houses, merely 

fixed upon pieces of wood 69 

and hung up. They take no Air *P , ^ t8of the 0rchis fami,y ‘ 

nourishment from the boughs of the tree they happen to grow upon. 

88. Parasitic Plants are those which strike their roots, or what answer to roots, 
into the bark or wood of the species they grow on, and feed upon its sap. The 

••Mistletoe is a woody parasitic plant, which engrafts itself when it springs from the 
seed upon the branches of Oaks, Hickories, or other trees. The Dodder is a com- 


36 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


mon parasitic herb, consisting of orange-colored whitish stems, looking like threads 
of yarn. These coil round the stalks of other plants, fasten themselves by little 
suckers in place of roots, and feejl upon their juices. Living as such a plant does 
by robbing other plants of their prepared food, it has no leaves of its own, except 
little scales in their place, and has no need of any. 

89. Shapes and Uses of Roots. Common roots, however, grow in the soil. And their 
use is to absorb moisture and other matters from the soil, and sometimes to hold 
prepared food until it is wanted for use, as was explained in 
the last section (70, 73). Those for absorbing are 

Fibrous roots , namely, slender and thread-shaped, as in Fig. 
48, 56, and generally branching. Very slender roots of the 
sort, or their branches, are called Rootlets ; and these do most 
of the absorbing. The roots of annuals are mostly fibrous, as 
they have nothing to do but to absorb; and so are the smaller 
branches of the roots of shrubs, trees, and other plants. 

Fleshy roots are those of herbs which form a thick and stout 
body, from having much nourishment deposited in them. They 
belong particularly to biennial herbs (69), and to many pe¬ 
rennials (73). Some sorts have names according to their 
shapes. The root is a 

Tap-root , when of one main body, and tapering downwards 
to a point; as that of a Carrot (Fig. 71), and of a seedling 
Oak (Fig. 41). And a tap-root is 

Conical , when stout, and tapering gradually from the upper 
end to a point below ; as a carrot (Fig. 71), parsnip, or beet. 

Spindle-shaped, when thicker in the middle, and tapering 
upwards as well as downwards, like a radish (Fig. 57) ; and 
Turnip-shaped, or Napiform, when wider than long, or with 
a suddenly tapering tip, as a turnip (Fig. 70). Roots are 
Clustered or Fascicled when, instead of one main root, there 
are several or many of about the same size; as in Indian Corn (Fig. 48), and other 
grain (Fig. 56). Here the clustered roots are fibrous, being for absorbing only. 
When such roots, or some of them, are thick and fleshy, as they are when used 
as storehouses of food, they become Tuberous. The roots of the Dahlia, for in¬ 
stance (Fig. 58), are clustered and tuberous , or tuber-like. 



KINDS OP STEMS AND BRANCHES. 


37 


§ 2. Of Stems. 

90. Forms or Kinds Of Stems, Differences in the size and consistence of stems, 
such as distinguish plants into herbs, shrubs, and trees, have already-been noticed, 
in paragraphs 64, 65, and 66. A stem is 

Herbaceous, when it belongs to an herb, that is, has very little wood in its com¬ 
position, and does not live over winter above ground: 

Shrubby, when it belongs to a shrub, or is woody: 

Arboreous or Arborescent, when the plant is a tree, or like a tree ; that is, when 
it is tall and grows by a single trunk. 

91. The peculiar straw-stem of a grass or grain is named a Culm. It is gen¬ 
erally hollow, except at the joints, which are hard and solid; but in Indian Corn, 
Sugar-Cane, and some other Grasses, it is not at all hollow. 

92. As to the mode of growth or the direction it takes in growing, the stem is 

Erect or Upright, when it grows directly upwards, or nearly so: 

Ascending, when it rises upwards at first in a slanting direction: 

Declined or Reclined, when turned or bent over to one side: 

Decumbent, when the lower part reclines on the ground, as if too weak to stand, 
but the end turns upwards more or less: 

Procumbent or Trailing, when the whole stem trails along the ground: 

Prostrate, when it naturally lies flat on the ground: 

Creeping or Running, when a trailing or prostrate stem strikes root along its 
lower side, where it rests on the ground: 

Climbing, where it rises by laying hold of other objects for support; either by 
tendrils, as in the Pea, Gourd, and Grape-Vine; or by twisting its leafstalks around 
the supporting body, as in the Virgin’s Bower; or by rootlets acting as holdfasts, as 
in the Ivy and Trumpet-Creeper (86) : 

Twining, when stems rise by coiling themselves spirally around any support, as 
in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4), Hop, and Bean. 

93. Several sorts of branches are different enough from the common to have 
particular names. Indeed, some are so different, that they would not be taken for 
branches without considerable study. Such, for instance, as 

94. Thoms or Spines, Most of these are imperfect, leafless, hardened, stunted 
branches, tapering to a point. That they are branches is evident in the Hawthorn 
and similar trees, from their arising from the axil of leaves, as branches do. And 
on Pear-trees and Plum-trees many shoots may be found which begin as a leafy 


38 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


branch, but taper off into a thorn. Prickles , such as those on the stems of Roses 
and Brambles, must not be confounded with thorns. These are growths from the 
bark (like hairs or bristles, only stouter), and peel off with it; while thorns are 
connected with the wood. 

95. Tendrils, such as those of the Grape-Vine, Virginia Creeper (Fig. 72), and 
the Melon or Squash, are very slender, leafless branches, used to enable certain 

plants to climb. 
They grow out 
straight or nearly 
so until they reach 
some neighboring 
support, such as a 
stem, when the end 
hooks around it 
to secure a hold, 
and the whole ten¬ 
dril then shortens 
itself by coiling up 
spirally, so draw¬ 
ing the growing 

Tendrils of Virginia Creeper. SllOOt nearer tO the 

supporting object. When the Virginia Creeper climbs the side of a building, 
the face of a rock, or the smooth bark of a tree, which the tendrils cannot lay 
hold of in the usual way, their tips expand into a flat plate (as shown in Fig. 73, 
the ends of a tendril magnified), which adheres very firmly to the surface. This 
enables the plant to climb up a smooth surface by tendrils, just as the Ivy and 
Trumpet-Creeper climb by rootlets (86). 

96. Peduncles or Flower-stalks are a kind of branches, or stems, as is clear from 
their situation. They are either a continuation of the stem, as in the Lily of the 
Valley and the Chalcedonian Lily, represented on the first page; or else they rise 
out of the axil of a leaf, as in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4). Plainly, whatever 
comes from the axil of a leaf must be of the nature of a branch. So 

97. Buds, that is axillary buds, are undeveloped branches, as already explained - 
in paragraphs 55 to 58. 

98. The following kinds of branches are all connected with the ground in some 
way, and most of them act in such a way as to make new plants. 




KINDS OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. 


39 


99. A Stoloil is a branch which reclines on the ground, or bends over to it, and 
strikes root (Fig. 74). Currant-bushes spread naturally by stolons, and so does 
White Clover. The gardener imitates the process where it does, not naturally 
occur, or facilitates it where it does, by bending branches to the ground, and pinning 
them down, when they strike root where they are covered by the soil, and then the 
branch, having leaves and roots of its own, may be separated as an independent 
plant. In this way the gardener multiplies many plants by layering which he 
cannot so readily propagate by seed. 



100. A Rlinner (Fig. 74) is a very slender, thread-like, leafless stolon, much like 
a tendril, lying on the ground, and rooting and budding at the point; so giving rise 
to a new plant at some distance from the parent, and connected with it during the 
first year. But the runner dies in winter and leaves the young plant independent. 
The Strawberry-plant affords the most familiar illustration of runners. Each plant 
or offshoot, as soon as established, sends out runners of its own, which make new 
plants at their tip. In this way a single Strawberry-plant produces a numerous 
progeny in the course of the summer, and establishes them at convenient dis¬ 
tances all around. 

101. A SucliCl’ (Fig. 74) is a branch which springs from a parent stem under 
ground, where it makes roots of its own, while farther on it rises above ground into 
a leafy stem, and becomes an independent plant whenever the connection with the 
parent stem dies or is cut off. It is by suckers that Rose and Raspberry bushes 
multiply and spread so “ by the root,” as is generally said. But that these subter¬ 
ranean shoots are stems, and not roots (though they produce roots), will plainly 
appear by uncovering them. 

" 102. All Offset is a short branch, next the ground or below its surface, like a 

short stolon or sucker, bearing a tuft of leaves at the end, and taking root where this 








40 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


rests on the soil; as in the Houseleek (Fig. 65), where one plant will soon produce 
a cluster of young plants or offsets all around it. 

103. A Rootstock is any kind of horizontal stem or branch growing under ground. 
Slender rootstocks occur in the subterranean part of the suckers of Roses, of Pepper¬ 
mint, or of Canada Thistle, and of Quick-Grass or Couch-Grass 
(Fig. 75), which spreads so widely, and becomes so troublesome 
to farmers. They are well distinguished from roots by the 
leaves which they bear at every joint, in the form of scales, and 
by the buds which they produce, one in the axil of each scale. 
These buds, which are very tenacious of life, are what renders 
the plant so exceedingly difficult to destroy. For ploughing and 
hoeing only cut up the rootstock into pieces, each with a tuft of 
roots ready formed and with a bud to each joint, all the more 
ready to grow for the division. So that the attempt to destroy 

Quick-Grass by cut¬ 
ting it up by the 
roots (as these shoots 
are called), unless the 
Rootstock of Quick-grass. pieces are carefully 

taken out of the soil, is apt to produce many active plants in place of one. 

104. Thickened or fleshy rootstocks, such as those of Solomon’s Seal (Fig. 63) 
and Iris (Fig. 64), have already been illustrated (76). 

105. A Tuber is a rootstock thickened at the end, as already explained in the 
Potato and Ground Artichoke (74, 75, Fig. 59, 60). The eyes of a tuber are lively 
buds, well supplied with nourishment for their growth. 

106. A Corra or Solid Blllb, as of Gladiolus and Crocus 
(Fig. 76), is a sort of rounded tuber. If well covered with 
thick scales it would become 

107. A Bulb, This is a (mostly subterranean) stem, so 
short as to be only a flat plate, producing roots from its lower 
surface and above covered with thickened scales, — as was 
fully explained in the last section (77). 

108. Bulbs are scaly , as in the Lily (Fig. 66), when the 
scales are narrow; or coated , as an onion, when the scales enwrap each other, and 
form coats. 




Corm of Crocus, with buds. ' 







INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEMS. 


41 


109. BlllbletS are little bulbs, or fleshy buds, formed in the axils of leaves above 
ground, as in the Bulb-bearing Lily. Or in some Leeks and Onions they take the 
place of flower-buds. Falling off, they take root and grow into ne.w plants. 

110. Tile Internal Structure Of Stems. Plants are composed of two kinds of ma¬ 
terial, namely, Cellular Tissue and Wood. The former makes the softer, fleshy, and 
pithy parts; the latter forms the harder, fibrous, or woody parts. The stems of 
herbs contain little wood, and much cellular tissue; those of shrubs and trees 
abound in the woody part. 

111. There are two great classes of stems, which differ in the way the woody 
part is arranged in the cellular tissue. They are named the Exogenous, and the 
Endogenous. 

112. For examples of the first class we may take a Bean-stalk, a stem of Flax, 
Sunflower, or the like, among herbs, and for woody stems any common stick 
of wood. For examples of the second class take an Asparagus-shoot or a Corn¬ 
stalk, and in trees a Palm-stem. These names express 
the different ways in which the two kinds grow in thickness 
when they live more than one year. But the difference 
between the two is almost as apparent the first year, and 
in the stems of herbs, which last only one year. 

113. The Endogenous Stem. Endogenous means “ inside¬ 
growing.” Fig. 77 shows an Endogenous stem in a Corn¬ 
stalk, both in a cross-section, at the top, and also split 
down lengthwise. The peculiarity is that the wood is all 
in separate threads or bundles of fibres running lengthwise, 
and scattered among the cellular tissue throughout the 
whole thickness of the stem. On the cross-section their 
cut ends appear as so many dots; in the slice lengthwise 
they show themselves to be threads or fibres of wood. 

Fig. 78 is a similar view of a Palm-stem (namely, of our 
Carolina Palmetto, of which whole trees are represented 
in Fig. 79). It shows the endogenous plan in a stem 
several years old. Here the bundles of wood are merely 
increased very much in number, new threads having been 
formed throughout intermixed with the old, and any in¬ 
crease in diameter that has taken place is from a general distention or enlargement 


























42 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 



of the whole. Such stems may well enough be called inside-growers, because their 
wood increases in amount, as they grow older, by the formation of new threads or 
fibres of wood within or among the old. 

114. Moreover, endogenous stems 
are apt to make few or no branch¬ 
es. Asparagus is the only common 
example to the contrary ; that 
branches freely. But the stalks 
of Corn and other grain, and those 
of Lilies (Fig. 1, 2) and the like, 
seldom branch until they come to 
flower; and Palms are trees of 
this sort, with perfectly simple or 
branchless trunks, rising like col¬ 
umns, and crowned with a tuft of 
conspicuous and peculiar foliage, 
which all comes from the continued 
growth of a terminal bud. 

115. The Exogenous Stem is the 
kind we are familiar with in ordi¬ 
nary wood. But it may be observed 
in the greater part of our herbs as 
well. It differs from the 
other class, even at the be¬ 
ginning, by the wood all 
occupying a certain part of 
the stem, and by its woody 
bundles soon appearing to 
run together into a solid 
layer. This layer of wood, 
whether much or little, is always situated around a central part, or pith, which 
has no wood in it, being pure cellular tissue, and is itself surrounded by a bark* 
which is mainly or at first entirely cellular tissue. So that a slice across an exoge¬ 
nous stem always has a separate cellular part, as bark, on the circumference, then a 
ring of wood, and in the centre a pith; as is seen in Fig. 80, representing a piece 


v 

Palmettos of various ages, and a Yucca, y. 



KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 


43 



Exogenous Stems. 


of Flax-stem magnified; and also in Fig. 81, which shows the same structure in 
a woody stem, namely, in a shoot of Maple of a year old, cut both crosswise and 
lengthwise. 

116. The difference becomes still more 
marked in stems more than one year old. 

During the second year a new layer of 
wood is formed outside of the first one, 
between it and the bark; the third year, 
another layer outside of the second, and so 
on, a new layer being formed each year 
outside of that of the year before. The 

increase is all on the surface, and buries the older wood deeper and deeper in the 
trunk. For this reason such stems are said to be exogenous or outside-growing 
(from two Greek words which mean just this), a new layer being added to the wood 
on the outside each year as long as the tree or shrub lives. And so the oldest wood, 
or Heart-wood, is always in the centre, and the newest and freshest, the Sap-wood, 
at the circumference, just beneath the bark. 

117. The heart-wood is dead, or soon becomes so. The sap-wood is the only 
active part; and this, with the inner bark, which is renewed from its inner face every 
year, is all of the trunk that is concerned in the life and growth of the tree. 

118. Plants with exogenous or outside-growing stems, especially those that live 
year after year, almost always branch freely. All common shrubs and trees of 
the exogenous class make a new set of branches every year, and so present an ap¬ 
pearance very different from that of most of those of the endogenous or inside¬ 
growing class. 

§ 3. Of Leaves. 


119. Leaves exhibit an almost endless variety of forms in different plants; and 
their forms afford easy marks for distinguishing one species from another. So the 
different shapes of leaves are classified and named veiy particularly, — which is 
a great convenience in describing plants, as it enables a botanist to give a correct 
idea of almost any leaf in one or two words. We proceed to notice some of the 
principal kinds. 

120. Their Parts, A leaf with all its parts complete has a Blade, a Footstalk, 
and a pair of Stipules at the base of the footstalk. Fig. 82 shows all three parts 























44 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


in a Quince-leaf: b, the blade; p, the footstalk ; and st, the stipules, looking like a 
pair of little blades, one on each side of the stalk. But many leaves have no 
stipules ; many have no footstalk, and then the blade sits directly on the stem (or is 
sessile), as in Fig. 138. Some leaves even have no blade; but this is uncommon; 
for in foliage the blade is the essential part. There¬ 
fore, in describing the shape of leaves, it is always 
the blade that is meant, unless something is said to 
the contrary. 

121. Leaves are either simple or compound. They 
are simple when the blade is all of one piece; com- 
pound, when of more than one piece or blade. Fig. 

128 to 132, and 133, are examples of compound leaves, 
the latter very compound, having as many as eighty- 
one little blades. 

122. Their Structure and Vetoing. Leaves are com¬ 
posed of the same two kinds of material as stems (110), 
namely, of wood or fibre, and of cellular tissue. The 
woody or fibrous part makes a framework of ribs 
and veins, which gives the leaf more strength and 
toughness than it would otherwise have. The cellu¬ 
lar tissue forms the green pulp of the leaf. This is 
spread, as it were, over the framework, both above 
and below, and supported by it; and the whole is protected by a transparent skin, 
which is termed the Epidermis. 

123. Ribs. The stouter pieces or timbers of the framework are called Bibs. 
In the leaf of the Quince (Fig. 82), Pear, Oak (Fig. 120), &c. there is only a single 
main rib, running directly through the middle of the blade from base to point; this 
is called the Midrib. But in the Mallow, the Linden (Fig. 83), the Maple (Fig. 
84), and many others, there are three, or five, or seven ribs of nearly the same size. 
The branches of the ribs and the branchlets from them are called 

124. Veins and Vcinlets. The former is the general name for them; but the finest 
branches are particularly called Veinlets. Straight and parallel veins or fine ribs, 
like those of Indian Corn, or of any Grass-leaf, or of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 
3, 85), are called Nerves. This is not a sensible name, for even if in some degree 
like the nerves of animals in shape, they are not in the least like them in use. 



KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 


45 


Nor are what we call veins to be likened particularly to the bloodvessels of ani¬ 
mals. But this name is not so bad; for the minute fibres which, united in bun¬ 
dles, make up the ribs and veins, are hollow tubes, and serve more or less for con¬ 
veying the sap. 

125. As to the reining , or the arrangement of the framework in the blade, leaves 
are divided into two classes, viz.: 1st, the Netted-veined or Reticulated , and, 2d, 
the Parallel-veined or Nerved. 

126. Netted-Veined or Reticulated leaves are those in which the veins branch off 
from the rib or ribs, and divide again and again, and some of the veins and veinlets 
run into one another, 
so forming reticulations 
or meshes of network 
throughout the leaf. 

This is shown in the 
Quince-leaf (Fig. 82); 
also in the Linden or 
Basswood (Fig. 83), 
and the Maple (Fig. 

84), where the finer 
meshes appear in one 
or two of the leaves. 

127. Netted-veined 
leaves belong to plants 
which have a pair of 
seed-leaves to their em¬ 
bryo (48), and stems 
of the exogenous structure (115). That is, these three kinds of structure, in em¬ 
bryo, stem, and leaf, generally go together. 

128. Parallel-veined or Nerved leaves are those in which the ribs and veins run side 
by side without branching (or with minute cross-veinlets, if any) from the base to 
the point of the blade, as in Indian-Corn, Lily of the Yalley (Fig. 85), &c., or 
sometimes from the midrib to the margins, as in the Banana and Calla (Fig. 86). 
Such parallel veins have been called Nerves , as just explained (124). Leaves of this 
sort belong to plants with one cotyledon to their embryo (47), and with endogenous 
stems (113). 



Netted-veined Leaves of 

83. Linden. 8-1. Maple. 



46 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


129. Parallel-veined leaves, we see, are of two sorts; — 1. those with the veins or 
nerves all running from the base of the leaf to the point (Fig. 85) ; and, 2. those 
where they mostly run from the midrib to the margin, as in Fig. 86 . Netted-veined 
leaves likewise are of two sorts, the Feather-veined and the Radiate-veined. 

130. Feather-veined (al¬ 
so called pinnately veined ) 
leaves are those in which 
the main veins all spring 
from the two sides of one 
rib, viz. the midrib, like the 
plume of a feather from 
each side of the shaft. Fig¬ 
ures 82, 88-97, 120, 122, 

&c. represent feather-veined 
leaves. 

131. Radiate-Veined (al¬ 
so called palmately veined) 
leaves are those which have 
three or more main ribs ris¬ 
ing at once from the place 
where the footstalk joins the 
blade, and commonly diverg¬ 
ing, like rays from a centre ; the veins branching off from these. Of this sort are 
the leaves of the Maple (Fig. 84), Mallow, Currant, Grape-Vine, and less dis¬ 
tinctly of the Linden (Fig. 83). Such leaves are generally roundish in shape. It. 
is evident that this kind of veining is adapted to round leaves, and the other kind 
for those longer than wide. 

132. Shapes of Leaves. As to general shape, the following are the names of the 
principal sorts. (It will be a good exercise for students to look up examples which 
fit the definitions.) 

Linear ; narrow, several times longer than wide, and of about the same width 
throughout, as in Fig. 87. 

Lance-shaped or Lanceolate ; narrow, much longer than wide, and tapering up¬ 
wards, or both upwards and downwards, as in Fig. 88. 

Oblong; two or three times longer than broad, as in Fig. 89. 




Parallel-veined Leaves. 









KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 


47 


Oval; broader than oblong, and with a flowing outline, as in Fig. 90. 

Ovate ; oval, but broader towards the lower end; of the shape of a hen’s egg cut 
through lengthwise, as in Fig. 91. 

Orbicular or Round ; circular or nearly circular in outline, as in Fig. 93. 



133. Some leaves taper downwards more than upwards. Of these the common¬ 
est forms are the 

Oblanceolate , or Inversely lance-shaped; that is, shaped like a lance with the 
point downwards, as in Fig. 94. 

Spatulate ; roundish above, and tapering 
into a long and narrow base, like the old 
form of the apothecary’s spatula, Fig. 95. 

Obovate , or Inversely ovate ; that is, ovate 
with the narrow end at the bottom of the 
leaf, as in Fig. 96. 

Cuneate or Wedge-shaped; like the last, 

. . _ _ Oblanceo- Spatulate. Oboyate. Cuneate or 

but with the sides narrowing straight down i*‘e. wedge-shaped, 

to the lower end, in the shape of a wedge, as in Fig. 97. 

134. Of course these shapes all run into one another by imperceptible degrees in 
different cases. The botanist merely gives names to the principal grades. Inter¬ 
mediate shapes are described by combining the names of the two shapes the leaf 
in question most resembles. For example: — 

Lance-linear , or linear-lanceolate, means between linear and lance-shaped. 

Lance-oblong , or oblong-lanceolate , means between oblong and lanceolate in shape. 

Ovate-lanceolate , between ovate and lance-shaped; and so on. 

135. Or else a qualifying word may be used, as somewhat ovate, slightly heart- 
shaped, and the like. Thus, Fig. 92 is ovate in general form, but with the base a 
little notched, i. e. somewhat heart-shaped. It is one of the kinds which depend upon 

4 



















48 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


136. The shape at the base. This is concerned in all the following sorts: — 

Heart-shaped , or Cordate; when of the shape in which a heart is painted, the 
base having a recess or notch, as in Fig. 98. 

Kidney-shaped , or Reniform; like heart-shaped, but rounder, and broader than 
long, as in Fig. 99. 

Auricled , or Barred; having a small projection or lobe on each side at the base, 
like a pair of ears, as in Fig. 101. 


Arrow-shaped , or Arrow-headed; 
when such lobes at the base are 




Auricled, 
or eared. 


Halberd-shaped, 
or hastate. 


103 


pointed and turned backwards, like the base of an arrow-head, as in Fig. 100. 

Halberd-shaped , or Hastate ; when such lobes point outwards, giving the whole 
blade the shape of the halberd of the olden time, as in Fig. 102. 

Shield-shaped , or Peltate; when the footstalk is attached to some part of the 
lower face of the blade, which may be likened to a shield borne by the hand with 
the arm extended. Fig. 104 represents the shield-shaped leaf of a Water-Penny¬ 
wort. Fig. 103 is the leaf of another species, which is not shield-shaped. A 
comparison of the two shows how the shield¬ 
shaped leaf is made. 

137. As to the Apex or Point , we have the 
following terms, the first six of which apply 
to the base as well as to the apex of a leaf: — 

Pointed , Taper-pointed , or Acuminate ; 
narrowed into a tapering tip, as in Fig. 105. 

Acute ; ending in an acute angle, Fig. 106. 

Obtuse ; ending in an obtuse angle, or with a blunt or rounded apex; as in Fig. 107. 

Truncate; as if cut off square at the apex, as in Fig. 108. 









KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 


49 


Retuse ; having a blunt or rounded apex slightly indented, as in Fig. 109. 

Emarginate , or Notched; as if a notch were cut out of the apex*; Fig. 110. 

Obcordate, or Inversely heart-shaped; that is, with the strong notch at the apex 
instead of the base, as in Fig. Ill and the leaflets of White Clover. 

Cuspidate ; tipped with a rigid or sharp and narrow point, as in Fig. 112. 

Mucronate ; abruptly tipped with a short and weak point, like a small projection 
of the midrib, as in Fig. 113. 

Awned, Awn-pointed , or Aristate ; tipped with a long bristle-shaped appendage, 
like the beard {awn) of Oats, &c. 


105 106 107 103 109 110 111 112 113 



Pointed. Acute. Obtuse. Truncate. Retuse. Notched. Obcordate. Cuspidate. Mucronate. 


138. As to the margin , whether whole, toothed, or cut, leaves are said to be 

Entire ; when the margin is an even line, as in Fig. 99 to 102. 

Toothed; when beset with teeth or small indentations ; of this there are two or 
three varieties, as, 

Serrate or Saw-toothed; when in ns 116 nr ns 119 

the teeth turn forwards, like 
those of a saw, as in Fig. 114. 

Dentate; when they point 
outward, as in Fig. 115. 

Crenate; when scalloped in¬ 
to broad and rounded teeth, as 
in Fig. 116. 

Wavy {Repand or Undulate ); 
when the margin bends slightly 
in and out, as in Fig. 117. 

Sinuate ; strongly wavy or 
sinuous, as in Fig. 118. 

Incised or Jagged; cut into deep and irregular, jagged teeth or incisions, as 
Fig. 119. This leads to truly 

139. Lobed or Cleft Leaves, &c.: those with the blade cut up, as it were, into parts, 
i. e. lobes or divisions. In a general way, such leaves are said to be lobed ; and the 



in 

























50 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


number of projecting parts, or lobes, may be expressed by saying two-lobed , three- 
lohed (Fig. 121), &c., according to their number. Or, more particularly, a leaf is 

Lobed; when the pieces are roundish, or the incisions open or blunt, as in Fig. 
120, 121; and 

Cleft; when cut about half-way down, with sharp and narrow incisions, as in 
Fig. 122, 123 ; and so two-cleft, three-cleft, five-cleft, &c., according to the number. 

Parted; when the cutting extends almost through, as in Fig. 124,125. And we 
say two-parted, three-parted, &c., to express the number of the parts. 

Divided ; when the divisions go through to the base of the leaf (as in Fig. 127), 
or to the midrib (as in Fig. 126), which cuts up the blade into separate pieces, or 
nearly so. 

120 122 124 126 



140. As the cutting is always between the veins or ribs, and not across them, 
the arrangement of the lobes depends upon the kind of veining. Feather-veined 
leaves have the incisions all running in towards the midrib (as in'the upper roW of 
figures), because the principal veins all spring from the midrib; while radiate or 
palmately veined leaves have them all running towards the base of the blade, where 
the ribs all spring from the footstalk, as in the lower row of figures. So those of 




KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 


51 


the upper row are called pinnately lobed , cleft, parted , or divided , as the case may 
be, and those of the lower row palmately lobed , cleft , &c. The number of the lobes 
or pieces may also be expressed in the same phrase. Thus, Hepatica has a pal¬ 
mately three-lobed leaf (Fig. 121) ; the Red Maple a palmately five-cleft leaf (Fig. 
84), and so on. 

141. In this way almost everything about the shape and veining of a leaf may 
be told in very few words. How useful this is, will be seen when we come to study 
plants to find out their names by the descriptions. 

142. All these terms apply as well to the lobes or parts of a leaf, when they are 
themselves toothed, or lobed, or cleft, &c. And they also apply to the parts of the 
flower, and to any flat body like a leaf. So that the language of Botany, which the 
student has to leam, does not require so very many technical words as is commonly 
supposed. 

143. Compound Leaves (121) are those which have the blade cut up into two or 
more separate smaller blades. The separate blades or pieces of a compound leaf 
are called Leaflets. The leaflets are generally jointed with the main footstalk, just 
as that is jointed 
with the stem, and 
when the leaf dies 
the leaflets fall off 
separately. 

144. There are 
two kinds of com¬ 
pound leaves, the 
pinnate and the 
palmate . 

145. Pinnate 
leaves have their 
leaflets arranged 
along the sides of 
the main footstalk, 
as in Fig. 128, 129, 130. 

146. Palmate (also called Digitate) leaves bear their leaflets all at the very end 
of the footstalk; as in Fig. 131. 

147. There are several varieties of pinnate leaves, The principal sorts are: — 



Odd-pinnate. 


Pinnate with a tendril. 











52 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


Interruptedly pinnate, when some of the leaflets of the same leaf are much smaller 
than the rest, and placed between them, as in the Water Avens. 

Abruptly pinnate, when there is no odd leaflet 
at the end, as in Honey-Locust, Fig. 130. 

Odd-pinnate , when there is an odd leaflet at 
the end, as in the Common Locust (Fig. 128) and 
in the Ash. 

Pinnate with a tendril , when the footstalk is 
prolonged into a tendril, as in Fig. 129, and all 
of the Pea tribe. 

148. Pinnate leaves may have many or few 
leaflets. The Bean has pinnate leaves of only 
three leaflets. 

149. Palmate leaves generally have few 
leaflets; there is not room for many on the 
very end of the footstalk. Common Clover 
has a palmate leaf of three leaflets (Fig. 

136) ; Virginia Creeper, one of five leaflets 
(Fig. 72), as well as the Buckeye (Fig. 131) ; 
while the Horsechestnut has seven, and some 
Lupines from eleven to seventeen. 

150. Twice or Thrice Compound Leaves are 
not uncommon, both of the pinnate and of 
the palmate sorts. While some leaves of 
Honey-Locust are only once pinnate, as in 
Fig. 130, others are doubly or twice pinnate, 
as in Fig. 132. Those of many Acacias are 
thrice pinnate. Fig. 133 represents one of 
the root-leaves of Meadow-Rue, which is 
of the palmate kind, and its general footstalk 
is divided into threes for four times in suc¬ 
cession, making in all eighty-one leaflets! 

When a leaf is divided three or four times, 
it is said to be decompound. This is ter- 
nately decompound, because it divides each 
time into threes. 




132. A twice-pinnate leaf of Honey-Locust. 






KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 


53 


151. Leaves without Distinction of Footstalk and Blade, or with no very obvious 
distinction of parts. Of this kind, among several others, may be mentioned, — 

Needle - shaped 
leaves, such as 
those of Pine-trees 
and Larches (Fig. 
134). These are 
long, slender, and 
rigid, and often with 
little if any distinc¬ 
tion of sides. 

Awl-shaped or 
Subidate leaves are 
those which from a 
broadish base ta¬ 
per into a sharp 
and rigid point, like 


Ternately decompound, or four times compound leaf. 

one sort of those of the Red Cedar and Arbor Vitae (Fig. 135, 
those on the larger branchlets). Those on other branchlets, as 
at a, are shorter, blunt, and scale-shaped. 

Thread-shaped or Filiform 
leaves; round and stalk-like, as 
those of the Onion. 

Equitant leaves, like those of 
Iris (Fig. 64), which are folded 
together lengthwise, as may be 
seen at the base, where they 
override each other. They grow 
upright, with their faces looking 
horizontally, instead of having an upper and a lower surface, as most leaves do. 




Needle-shaped leaves of Larch. 






54 


HOW PLANTS GROW. 


152. Stipules, as already explained (120), are a pair of appendages at the base of 
the leaf, one on each side. These often grow fast to the base of the leafstalk, 

as they do in the Rose and in Clover (Fig. 136; st, 
the stipules). Or they may join with each other and 
form a kind of sheath round the stem, as they do in 
the Buttonwood and in Polygonum (Fig. 137). 
Many leaves have no stipules at all. In many 
cases they fall off very early, especially those that 
serve for bud-scales, as in Magnolia. 

153. The Arrangement of Leaves on the stem has 
already been explained as to the two principal ways 
(59). Leaves are either 

Alternate , when they follow each other one by one, 
as in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4) and the Linden 
(Fig. 83); or 

Opposite , when in pairs, 
that is, two on each joint of 
stem, one opposite the other, 
as in Maples (Fig. 84). To 
these may be added a third, 
but less common arrangement, 
viz. the 

Whorled ; where there are 
three, four, or more leaves on 
the same joint of stem, forming 

a circle or whorl; as in Madder and Bedstraw (Fig. 137'). 
variety of the opposite mode. 

Analysis of the Section. 

81. Vegetation very simple in plan, very diversified in particulars. 82. The study of the forms of 
the organs is Morphology. 

83-89. Roots, their forms and kinds. 84. Primary or original; secondary; how they originate. 
85. Aerial roots. 86. Aerial rootlets. 87. Air-Plants ; how they live. 88. Parasitic Plants, their 
economy. 89. Shapes of roots: fibrous; fleshy; the principal sorts. 

90. Forms or kinds of stem; herbaceous, shrubby, arboreous. 91. Culm or straw-stem. 92. Direc¬ 
tions or positions of stems. 93. Peculiar sorts. 94. Thorns or Spines, how shown to be branches; 



Whorled leaves. 

But this is only a 








ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION. 


55 


Prickles. 95. Tendrils. 96. Peduncles or Flower-stalks. 97. Buds. 98. Branches connected with 
the ground. 99. Stolons. 100. Eunners. 101. Suckers. 102. Offsets. 103. Eootstocks. 104. Fleshy 
Eootstocks. 105. Tubers. 106. Corms. 107. Bulbs; 108. scaly and coated. 109. Bulblets. 

110. Internal Structure of Stems; Cellular Tissue; Wood. 111. The two classes of stems. 112. Ex¬ 
amples, both in herbs and trees. 113. Endogenous stem; how its wood is arranged. 114. External 
appearance and growth. 115. Exogenous stem; common wood. 116. How it increases in diameter 
year after year: Sap-wood and Heart-wood. 117. The latter dead, the former annually renewed. 118. 
External appearance and mode of growth. 

119. Leaves; their varieties, why useful to learn. 120. Their parts : Blade, Footstalk, Stipules. 
121. Simple and Compound. -122. Structure and Veining of leaves: woody or fibrous part; cellular 
tissue or green pulp ; Epidermis or Skin. 123. Eibs. 124. Veins and Veinlets; Nerves, so called. 
125. Two kinds of veining. 126. Netted-veined or Reticulated. 127. Class of plants that have this 
kind of veining. 128. Parallel-veined or Nerved ; class of plants that have this kind of veining. 
129. Both kinds of two sorts. 130. Feather-veined or Pinnately veined. 131. Radiate-veined or Pal- 
mately veined. 

132. Shapes of leaves enumerated; as to general outline. 133. Those that taper downward. 134, 
135. Intermediate shapes, how expressed. 136. Shapes depending upon the base. 137. Forms of 
apex. 138. As to margin or toothing, &c. 139. Lobing or division. 140. How this is related to the 
veining; how both the kind of lobing and the number of parts may be expressed, 141, so that a short 
phrase will describe the leaf completely. 142. All the various terms apply as well to other parts, as 
to calyx, corolla, petals, &c. 

143. Compound Leaves ; Leaflets. 144. The two kinds. 145. Pinnate leaves. 146. Palmate or 
Digitate. 147. Varieties of pinnate leaves. 148. Number of leaflets. 149. Also of palmate leaves ; 
why their leaflets are generally fewer than those of pinnate leaves. 150. Twice or thrice compound 
and decompound leaves. 

151. Leaves without distinction of blade and footstalk ; Needle-shaped ; Thread-shaped ; Awl- 
shaped ; Equitant. 152. Stipules; often united with the footstalk, or with each other. 

153. The arrangement of leaves on the stem: the three modes, viz. alternate, opposite, whorled. 


CHAPTER II. 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED OR MULTIPLIED IN NUMBERS. 

Section I. — How Propagated from Buds. 

154. Plants not only grow so as to increase in size or extent, but also multiply, 
or increase their numbers. This they do at such a rate that almost any species, 
if favorably situated, and not interfered with by other plants or by animals, would 
soon cover the whole face of a country adapted to its life. 

155. Plants multiply in two distinct ways, namely, by Buds and by Seeds. All 
plants propagate by seeds, or by what answer to seeds. Besides this, a great 
number of plants, mostly perennials, propagate naturally from buds. 

156. And almost any kind of plant may be made to propagate from buds, by 
taking sufficient pains. The gardener multiplies plants artificially in this way, 

157. By Layers and Slips or Cuttings. In laying or layering , the gardener bends 
a branch down to the ground, — sometimes cutting a notch at the bend, or remov¬ 
ing a ring of bark, to make it strike root the quicker, — and covers it with earth; 
then, after it has rooted, he cuts off the connection with the parent stem. Thus he 
makes artificial stolons (99). Plants which strike root still more readily, such as 
Willows, he propagates by cuttings or slips, that is, by pieces of stem, containing 
one or more buds, thrust into the ground or into flower-pots. If kept moist and 
warm enough, they will generally strike root from the cut end in the ground, and 
develop a bud above, so forming a new plant out of a piece of an old one. Many 
woody plants, which will not so readily grow from slips, can often be multiplied 

158. By Grafting or Budding. In grafting , the cutting is inserted into a stem or 
branch of another plant of the same species, or of some species like it, as of the 
Pear into the Quince or Apple; where it grows and forms a branch of the stock 
(as the stem used to graft on is called). The piece inserted is called a scion. In 
grafting shrubs and trees it is needful to make the inner bark and the edge of the 
wood of the scion correspond with these parts in the stock, when they will grow 
together, and become as completely united as a natural branch is with its parent 
stem. In budding or inoculating , a young bud, stripped from one fresh plant, is 
inserted under the bark of another, usually in summer; there it adheres and gen- 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


57 


erally remains quiet, as it would have done on the parent bough, until the next 
spring, when it grows just as if it belonged there. 

159. The object of all these ways of artificial propagation from buds is to pre¬ 
serve and to multiply choice varieties of a species which would not be perpetuated 
from seed. For as the fruit of all the natural branches is alike, so it remains 
essentially unaltered when borne by branches which are made to grow as artificial 
branches of another plant, or to take root in the ground as a separate plant. The 
seeds of an apple or other fruit cannot be depended upon to reproduce the very 
same sort of apple, — that is, an apple of the very same flavor or goodness. The 
seeds will always reproduce the same species , but not the individual peculiarities. 
These are perpetuated in propagation from buds. This kind of propagation is there¬ 
fore very important to the cultivator. It takes place naturally in many plants, 

160. By Stolons, Offsets, Runners, or Suckers, in ways which have already been 
described (99 to 103, and Fig. 74). These are all forms of natural layering, and 
they must have taught the gardener his art in this respect. For he merely imitates 
Nature, or rather sets her at work and hastens her operations. Also, 

161. By Tubers (74, 75, Fig. 59, 60). These are under-ground branches with 
lively buds, well charged with prepared nourishment, rendering them more inde¬ 
pendent and surer to grow. Potatoes and Ground-Artichokes are familiar illus¬ 
trations of the kind. They are propagated year after year by their buds, or eyes, 
being very seldom raised from the seed. Each annual crop of tubers is set free at 
maturity, by the death of all the rest of the plant. 

162. By Corms, Bulbs, and Bulblets; as explained in paragraphs 77 and 106 to 
109. Fig. 76 shows a corm or solid bulb of Crocus, which itself grew by feeding 
upon its parent, whose exhausted remains are seen underneath: it has already pro¬ 
duced a crop of buds, to grow in their turn into another generation of corms, con¬ 
suming their parent in the process. Bulbs produce a crop of new bulbs from buds 
in the axils of some of their scales. Tulips, Daffodils, and Garlics propagate very 
freely in this manner, not only keeping up the succession of generations, but multi¬ 
plying greatly their numbers. 

Analysis of the Section. 

154. Plants multiply as well as grow. 155. In two ways; all plants by seeds, many by buds. 
156. Most kinds may be propagated by buds artificially. 157. By Layers and Slips or Cuttings. 158. By 
Grafting or Budding. 159. Object gained by this mode of propagation. 160. It takes place naturally, 
by Stolons, Offsets, &c. 161. By Tubers. 162. By Corms, Bulbs, and Bulblets. 


58 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


Section H. — How Propagated by Seeds. 

163. Propagation from buds is really only the division, as it grows, of one 
plant into two or more, or the separation of shoots from a stock. Propagation 
from seed is the only true reproduction. In the seed an entirely new individual is 
formed. So the Seed, and the Fruit , in which the seed is produced, and the Flower , 
which gives rise to the fruit, are the Organs of Reproduction (2). 

164. Every species at some period or other produces seeds, or something which 
answers to seeds. Upon this distinction, namely, whether they bear true flowers 
producing genuine seeds, or produce something merely answering to flowers and 
seeds, is founded the grand division of all plants into two series or grades, that is, 
into Ph^nogamous or Flowering Plants, and Cryptogamous or Flow¬ 
erless Plants. 

165. Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants do not bear real flowers, having stamens 
and pistils, nor produce real seeds, or bodies having an embryo ready formed in 
them. But they produce minute and very simple bodies which answer the purpose 
of seeds. To distinguish them from true seeds, they are called Spores. Ferns, 
Mosses, Lichens, and Seaweeds, are all flowerless plants, reproduced by spores. 

166. Plioenogamous or Flowering Plants are those which do bear flowers and seeds; 
the seed essentially consisting of an embryo or germ, ready formed within its 
coats, which has only to grow and unfold itself to become a plant; as has been 
fully explained in the first and second sections of Chapter I. 

167. Flowerless plants have their organs too minute to be examined without 
much magnifying, and are too difficult for young beginners. The ordinary or 
Flowering class of plants will afford them abundant occupation. We are to study 
first the Flower, then the Fruit and Seed. 

Section III. — Flo wers. 

§ 1. Their Arrangement *on the Stem. 

168. Inflorescence is the term used by botanists for flower-clusters generally, or 
for the way blossoms are arranged on the stem. Everything about this is governed' - 
by a very simple rule, which is this: — 

169. Flower-buds appear in the same places that common buds (that is, leaf- 
buds) do; and they blossom out in the order of their age, the earliest-formed first, 


FLOWERS : THEIR ARRANGEMENT ON THE STEM. 


59 


and so on in regular succession. Now the place for buds is in the axils of the 
leaves ([axillary buds, 58), and at the end of the stem (terminal bud, 57) : so these 
are also the places from which flowers spring. Fig. 138 is a Trillium, with its 

flower terminal, that is, from the summit of the stem. 
Fig. 139 is a piece of Moneywort, with axillary flow¬ 
ers, i. e. from the axils of the leaves. The Morn¬ 
ing-Glory (Fig. 4) also has its flowers axillary. 

170. Solitary Flowers. In both these cases the 
blossoms are solitary, that is, single. There is only 
one on the plant in Trillium (Fig. 

138). In Fig. 139, there is on¬ 
ly one from the same axil; and 
although, as the stem grows on, 
flowers appear in succession, they 
are so scattered, and so accom¬ 
panied by leaves, that they cannot 
be said to form a flower-cluster. 

171. Flower-Clusters are formed 
whenever the blossoms are more 
numerous or closer, and the ac¬ 
companying leaves are less con¬ 
spicuous. Fig. 140 is a cluster 
(like that of Lily of the Valley, 

Fig. 3) of the kind called a 

Terminal Flower. raceme. On comparing it with 

Fig. 139, we may perceive that it differs mainly in having the leaves, one under 
each blossom-stalk, reduced to little scales, which are inconspicuous. In both, the 
flowers really spring from the axils of leaves. So they do in all the following 
kinds of flower-clusters, until we reach the Cyme. 

172. The leaves of a flower-cluster take the name of Bracts. These are gen¬ 
erally very different from the ordinary leaves of the plant, commonly much smaller, 
and often very small indeed, as in Fig. 140. In the figures 141 to 144, the bracts 
are larger, and more leaf-like. They are the leaves from whose axil the flower 
arises. Sometimes there are bracts also on the separate flower-stalks (as on the 
lower ones in Fig. 140) : to distinguish these we call them Bractlets. 



139 

Axillary Flowers. 



CO 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


173. The flower-stalk or footstalk of a blossom is called a Peduncle (96). So 
the flowers in Fig. 138, 139, &c. are peduncled or stalked. But in 
Fig. 141 they are sitting on the stem, or sessile. 

174. In clusters we need to distinguish two kinds of flower-stalks; 
namely, the stalk of the whole cluster, if there be any, and the stalk 
of each blossom. In such cases we call the stalk of the cluster the 
Peduncle , and the stalk of the individual flowers we name the Pedi¬ 
cel. In the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 3, as in Fig. 140), there is the 
'peduncle or general flower-stalk (which is here a continuation of 
the main stem), and then the flowers all have pedicels of their own. 

175. Kinds Of Flower-Clusters. Of those which bear their flowers on 
the sides of a main stalk, in the axils of leaves or bracts, the prin¬ 
cipal kinds are the Raceme , the Corymb , the Umbel , the Head , and 
the Spike with its varieties; also the Panicle . In the head and 
the spike the flowers are sessile. In the others they have pedicels 
or footstalks of their own. 

176. A Raceme is a cluster with the blossoms arranged along the 
sides of a main flower-stalk, or its continuation, and all on pedicels 
of about the same length. A bunch of Currant-blossoms or berries, 

° . HO 

or the graceful cluster of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 3, 140) are 
good illustrations. Fig. 142 shows the plan of the raceme. Notice that a raceme 
always blossoms from the bottom to the top, in regular order; because the lower 
buds are of course the oldest. 



177. A Corymb is a flat-topped or convex cluster, like that of Hawthorn. Fig. 




FLOWERS : THEIR ARRANGEMENT ON THE STEM. 


61 


143 shows the plan of it. It is plainly the same as a raceme with the lower 
pedicels much longer than the uppermost. Shorten the body, or axis, of a corymb 
so that it is hardly perceptible, and we 
change it into 

178. All Umbel, as in Fig. 144. This is a 
cluster in which the pedicels all spring from 
about the same level, like the rays or sticks 
of an umbrella, from which it takes its name. 

The Milkweed and Primrose bear their 
flowers in umbels. 

179. The outer blossoms of a corymb or 
an umbel plainly answer to the lower blos¬ 
soms of a raceme. So the umbel and the 
corymb blossom from the circumference 

towards the centre, the 
outer flower-buds being 
the oldest. By that we 
may know such clusters 
from cymes. 

180. A Head is a flower- 

cluster with a very short body, or axis, and without any pedi¬ 
cels to the blossoms, or hardly any, so that it has a rounded 
form. The Button-busli (Fig. 145), the Thistle, and the Red 
Clover are good examples. 

181. It is plain that an umbel would be changed into a head 
by shortening its pedicels down to nothing; or, contrarily, that 
a head would become an umbel by giving stalks to its flowers. 

182. A Spike is a lengthened flower-cluster, with no pedicels to 
the flowers, or hardly any. Fig. 141 gives the plan of a spike ; 
and the common Mullein and the Plantain are good examples. 
A head would become a spike by lengthening its axis. A ra¬ 
ceme would become a spike by shortening its pedicels so much 
that they could hardly be seen. The Catkin and the Spadix are 
only sorts of spike. 

183. A Catkin OI* Ament is a spike with scaly bracts. The flowers of the Wil¬ 
low, Poplar, Alder, and Birch (Fig. 146) are in catkins. 








62 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


184. A Spadix is a spike with small flowers crowded on a thick and fleshy body 
or axis. Sweet-Flag and Indian-Turnip are common examples. In Indian-Tur- 
nip (Fig. 147) the spadix bears flowers only near the 
bottom, but is naked and club-shaped above. And it is 
surrounded by a peculiar leaf or bract in the form of a 
hood. 

185. Such a bract or leaf enwrapping a spike or 
cluster of blossoms is named a Spathe. 

186. A set of bracts around a flower-cluster, such as 
those around the base of the umbel in Fig. 144, is called 
an Involucre . 

187. Any of these clusters may be compound. That 
is, there may be racemes clustered in racemes, making 
a compound raceme, or corymbs in 
corymbs, or umbels in umbels, making 
a compound umbel, as in Caraway 
(Fig. 148), Parsnip, Parsley, and all 
that family. The little umbels of a 
compound umbel are called Umbel- 
lets ; and their involucre, if they have 
any, is called an Involucel. 

188. A Panicle is an irreg¬ 
ularly branching compound ^ 

flower-cluster, such as would 
be formed by a raceme with 
its lower pedicels branched. 

Fig. 149 shows a simple 
panicle, the branches, or 
what would be the pedicels, 

only once branched. A Compound umbel, 

bunch of Grapes and the flower-cluster of Horsechestnut are 
more compound panicles. A crowded compound panicle of this 
sort has been called a Thyrse . 

189. A Cyme is the general name of flower-clusters of the Panicle. 

kind in which a flower always terminates the stem or main peduncle, and each of 



147 

Spadix and Spathe. 






FLOWERS : THEIR PARTS. 


63 


its branches. The plan of a cyme is illustrated in the following figures. Fig. 
150, to begin with, is a stem terminated by a flower, which plainly comes from 
a terminal bud or is a terminal flower. Fig. 151 is the same, which has started 
a branch from the axil 
of each of the uppermost 
leaves ; each of these 
ends in a flower-bud. 

Fig. 152 is the same, 
with the side branches 
again branched in the 
same way, each branch 
ending in a flower-bud. 

This makes a cluster 
looking like a corymb, as 
shown in Fig. 143 ; but observe that here in the cyme the middle flower, a, 
which ends the main stem, blossoms first; next, those flowers marked b ; then 
those marked c, and so on, the centre one of each set being the earliest; while in 
the corymb the blossoming begins with the outermost flowers and proceeds regu 
larly towards the centre. The Elder, the Cornel, and the Hydrangea (Fig. 169) 
have their blossoms in cymes many times branched in this way; that is, they have 
compound cymes. 

190. A Fascicle is only a close or very much crowded cyme, with very short 
footstalks to the flowers, or none at all, as the flower-cluster of Sweet-William. 




Plan of the Cyme. 


§ 2. Forms and Kinds of Flowers. 

191. The Parts Of a Flower were illustrated at the beginning of the book, in 
Chapter I., Section I. Let us glance at them again, taking a different flower for 
the example, namely, that of the Three-leaved Stonecrop. Although small, this 
has all the parts very distinct and regular. Fig. 153 is a moderately enlarged view 
of one of the middle or earliest flowers of this Stonecrop. (The others are like it, 
only with their parts in fours instead of fives.) And Fig. 154 shows two parts of 
each sort, one on each side, more magnified, and separated from the end of the 
flower-stalk (or Receptacle ), but standing in their natural position, namely, below or 
outside a Sepal, or leaf of the Calyx ; then a Petal , or leaf of the Corolla ; then a 
Stamen; then a Pistil. 


5 



64 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


192. This is a complete and regular, yet simple flower; and will serve as a pat¬ 
tern, with which a great variety of flowers may be compared. 

193. When we wish to designate the 
leaves of the blossom by one word, we call 
them the Perianth. This name is formed 
of two Greek words meaning “ around the 
flower.” It is convenient to use in cases 
where (as in the Lilies, illustrated on the 
first page) we are not sure at first view 
whether the leaves of the flower are calyx 
or corolla, or both. 

194. A Petal is sometimes to be distin¬ 
guished into two parts; its Blade , like the 
blade of a leaf, and its Claw , which is a 
kind of tapering base or foot of the blade. 
More commonly there is only a blade; but 
the petals of Roses have a very short, nar¬ 
row base or claw; those of Mustard, a 
longer one; those of Pinks and the like, a 
narrow claw, which is generally longer than 
the blade (Fig. 308). 

195. A Stamen , as we have already learned (15, 17), generally consists of two 
parts ; its Filament and its Anther. But the filament is only a kind of footstalk, 
no more necessary to a stamen than a petiole is to a leaf. It is therefore sometimes 
very short or wanting; when the anther is sessile. The anther is the essential part. 
Its use, as we know, is to produce pollen. 

196. The Pollen is the matter, looking like dust, which is shed 
from the anthers when they open (Fig. 159). Here is a grain of 
pollen, a single particle of the fine powder shed by the anther of a 
Mallow, as seen highly magnified. In this plant the grains are beset 
with bristly points ; in many plants they are smooth; and they differ Poiien-grain. 
greatly in appearance, size, and shape in different species, but are all just alike* in 
the same species ; so that the family a plant belongs to can often be told by seeing 
only a grain of its pollen. The use of the pollen is to lodge on the stigma of the 
pistil, where it grows in a peculiar way, its inner coat projecting a slender thread 




Petal. Stamen. Pistil. Pistil. Stamen. Petal. 








FLOWERS : THEIR NATURE. 


65 


which sinks into the pistil, somewhat as a root grows down into the ground, and 
reaches an ovule in the ovary, causing it in some unknown way to develop an 
embryo, and thereby become a seed. 

197. As to the Pistil , we have also learned that it consists of three parts, the 
Ovary , the Style, and the Stigma (16) ; that the style is 
not always present, being only a stalk or support for the 
stigma. But the two other parts are essential, — the 
Stigma to receive the pollen, and the Ovary to contain the 
ovules, or bodies which are to become seeds. Fig. 156 
represents a pistil of Stonecrop, magnified; its stigma 
(known by the naked roughish surface) at the tip of the 
style; the style gradually enlarging downwards into the 
ovary. Here the ovary is cut in two, to show some of the 
ovules inside. And Fig. 157 shows one of the ovules, or 
future seeds, still more magnified. 

198. Nature of tile Flower. In the mind of a botanist, 
who looks at the philosophy of the thing, 

A flower answers to a sorl of branch. True, a flower 
does not bear much resemblance to a common branch; but 
we have seen (90-109) what remarkable forms and ap¬ 
pearances branches, and the leaves they bear, occasionally 
take. Flowers come from buds just as branches do, and 
spring from just the same places that branches do (169). In fact, a flower is a 
branch intended for a peculiar purpose. While a branch with ordinary leaves is 
intended for growing, and for collecting from the air and preparing or digesting 
food, — and while such peculiar branches as tubers, bulbs, &c. are for holding pre¬ 
pared food for future use, — a blossom is a very short and a special sort of branch, 
intended for the production of seed. If the whole flower answers to a branch, 
then it follows that (excepting the receptacle, which is a continuation of the 
flower-stalk) — 

The 'parts of the flower answer to leaves. This is plainly so with the sepals and 
the petals, which are commonly called the leaves of the blossom. The sepals or 
, calyx-leaves are commonly green and leaf-like, or partly so. And the petals or 
corolla-leaves are leaves in shape, only more delicate in texture and in color. In 
many blossoms, and very plainly in a White Water-Lily, the calyx-leaves run into 



156 157 

Pistil. Ovule. 





66 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


corolla-leaves, and the inner corolla-leaves change gradually into stamens, — show¬ 
ing that even stamens answer to leaves. 

198 a . How a stamen answers to a leaf, according to the botanist’s idea, Fig. 
158 is intended to show. The filament or stalk of the stamen answers to the 
footstalk of a leaf; and the anther answers to the blade, 
figure represents a short filament, bearing an anther which 
has its upper half cut away; and the summit of a leaf is 
placed above it. Fig. 159 is the whole stamen of a Lily 
put beside it for comparison. If the whole anther corre¬ 
sponds with the blade of a leaf, then its two cells, or 
halves, answer to the halves of the blade, one on each side 
of the midrib; the continuation of the filament, which con¬ 
nects the two cells (called the connective ), answers to the 
midrib ; and the anther generally opens along what answer 
to the margins of a leaf. 

199. It is easy to see how a simple pistil answers to a 
leaf. A simple pistil, like one of those of the Stonecrop 
(Fig. 154, 156) is regarded by the botanist as if it were 
made by the folding up inwards of the blade of a leaf, 

(that is, of what would have been a leaf on any branch of the common kind,) so 
that the margins come together and join, making a hollow closed bag, which is the 
ovary; a tapering summit forms the style, and some part of the 
margins of the leaf in this, destitute of skin, becomes the stig¬ 
ma. To understand this better, compare Fig. 160, represent¬ 
ing a leaf rolled up in this way, with Fig. 156, and with Fig. 
161, which are pistils, cut in two, that the interior of the ovary 
may be seen. It is here plain that the ovules or seeds are at¬ 
tached to what answers to the united margins of the leaf. The 
particular part or line, or whatever it may be, that the ovules 
or seeds are attached to, is called the Placenta . 

200. Varieties or Sorts of Flowers. Now that we have learned 
how greatly roots, stems, and leaves vary in their forms and 
appearances, we should expect flowers to exhibit great variety in different species. 
In fact, each class and each family of plants has its flowers upon a plan of its 
own. But if students understand the general plan of flowers , as seen in the 



160 161 
Plan of Pistil. 


The lower part of the 













FLOWERS I THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 


67 


Morning-Glory, the Lily (Fig. 1-12), and the Stonecrop (191), they will soon 
learn to understand it in any or all of its diverse forms. The principal varieties 
or special forms that occur among common plants will he described under the 
families, in the Flora which makes the Second Part of this book. There stu¬ 
dents will learn them in the easiest way, as they happen to meet with them in 
collecting and analyzing plants. Here we will only notice the leading Kinds of 
Variation in flowers, at the same time explaining some of the terms which are 
used in describing them. 

201. Flowers consist of sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils. There may be few 
or many of each of these in any particular flower; these parts may be all separate, 
as they are in the Stonecrop; or they may be grown 
together, in every degree and in every conceivable 
way; or any one or more of the parts may be left 
out, as it were, or wanting altogether in a particular 
flower. And the parts of the same sort may be all 
alike, or some may be larger or smaller than the 
rest, or differently shaped. So that flowers may be 
classified into several sorts, of which the following 
are the principal. 

202. A Complete Flower is one which has all the 
four parts, namely, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pis¬ 
tils. This is the case in all the flowers we have 
yet taken for examples ; also in Trillium (Fig. 138, 
reduced in size, and here in Fig. 162, with the 
blossom of the size of life, and spread open flat). 

203. A Perfect Flower is one which has both sta¬ 
mens and pistils. A complete flower is of course a 
perfect one; but many flowers are perfect and not 
complete ; as in Fig. 163, 164. 

204. An Incomplete Flower is one which wants at 
least one of the four kinds of organs. This may 
happen in various ways. It may be 
• Apetalous ; that is, having no petals. This is the 
case in Anemony (Fig. 163), and Marsh-Marigold, 
of flower-leaves, and that is a calyx. The petals which are here wanting appear 



Complete flower of Trillium. 



For these have only one row 



68 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 



164 

Flower of LizardVTait. 


in some flowers very much like these, as in Buttercups (Fig. 238) and Goldthread. 
Or the flower may be still more incomplete, and 

Naked , or Achlamydeous ; that is, without any flower-leaves at all, 
neither calyx nor corolla. That is the case in 
the Lizard’s-Tail (Fig. 164), and in Willows. 

Or it may be incomplete by wanting either the 
stamens or the pistils; then it is 

205. An Imperfect or Separated Flower. Of course, 
if the stamens are wanting in one kind of blos¬ 
som there must be others that have them. Plants 
with imperfect flowers accordingly bear two sorts 
of blossoms, namely, one sort * 

Staminate or Sterile , those having stamens only, and therefore not 
producing seed; and the other 

Pistillate or Fertile , having a pistil but no good sta¬ 
mens, and ripening seed only when fertilized by pollen 
from the sterile flowers. The Oak and Chestnut, Hemp, 

Moonseed, and Indian Corn are so. Fig. 165 is one of 
the staminate or sterile flowers of Indian Corn; these 
form the “tassel” at the top of the stem: their pollen 
falls upon the “ silk,” or styles, of the forming ear below, 
consisting of rows of pistillate flowers. Fig. 166 is one 
of these, with its very long style. The two kinds of 
flowers in this case are 

Monoecious ; that is, both borne by the same individ¬ 
ual plant; as they are also in the Oak, 
Chestnut, Birch, &c. In other cases 

Dioecious; that is, when one tree or herb 
bears flowers with stamens only, and another 
flowers with pistils only ; as in Willows and 
Poplars, Hemp, and Moonseed. Fig. 1-67 is 
a staminate flower from one plant of Moon¬ 
seed, magnified; and Fig. 168, a pistillate flower, borne by a plant from a different 
root. There is a third way: some plants produce what are called 

Polygamous flowers, that is, having some blossoms with pistils only or with 



Indian Corn. 



Moonseed Flowers. 






FLOWERS : THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 


69 


stamens only, and others perfect, having both stamens and pistils, either on the same 
or on different individuals. The Red Maple is a very good case of this kind; the 

two or three sorts 
f of flowers look¬ 
ing very differ¬ 
ently when they 
appear in early 
spring; those of 
one tree having 
long red stamens 
and no good pis¬ 
til, those of other 
trees having con¬ 
spicuous pistils, 
in some blossoms 
with no good sta- 
Hydrange#. mens at all, in 

others with short ones. There are also what are called abortive or 

206. Neutral Flowers j having neither stamens nor pistils, and so good for nothing 
except for show. In the Snowball of the gardens and in richly cultivated Hydran¬ 
geas all the blossoms are neutral, and no fruit is formed. 

Even in the wild state of these shrubs, some of the 
blossoms around the margin of the cluster are neu¬ 
tral (as in the Wild Hydrangea, Fig. 169), consisting 
only of three or four flower-leaves, very much larger 
than the small perfect flowers which make up the rest of 
the cluster. Also what the gardener calls Double Flowers , 
when full, are neutral, as in double Roses and Buttercups. 

These are blossoms which by cultivation have all their 
stamens and pistils changed into stamens. 

207. A Symmetrical Flower is one which has an equal 
number of parts of each kind or in each set or row. 

This is so in the Stonecrop (Fig. 153), which has five sepals in the calyx, five petals 
in the corolla, ten stamens (that is, two sets of stamens of five each), and five 
pistils. Or often it has flowers with four sepals, and then there are only four 



170 

Flax. 






70 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


petals, eight stamens (twice four), and four pistils. So the flower of Trillium (Fig. 
162) is symmetrical; for it consists of three sepals, three petals, six stamens (one 

before each sepal and one before each petal), and 
a pistil plainly composed of three put together, 
having three styles or stigmas. Flax affords an¬ 
other good illustration of symmetrical flowers (Fig. 
170) : it has a calyx of five sepals, a corolla of 
five petals, five stamens, and five styles. In such 
flowers, and in blossoms generally, the parts alter¬ 
nate with each other; that is, the petals stand be¬ 
fore the intervals between the sepals, the stamens, 
when of the same number, before the intervals be¬ 
tween the petals, and so on. 

208. An Unsymmetrical Flower is one in which 
the different organs or 
sets do not match in 
the number of their 
parts. The flower of 
Anemony, Fig. 163, is 
unsymmetrical, having 
many more stamens 
and pistils than it has 
calyx-leaves. And the 
blossom of Larkspur 
(Fig. 171) is unsym¬ 
metrical, because, while p ( 
it has five sepals or 
leaves in the calyx, there are only four petals or co¬ 
rolla-leaves, but a great many stamens, and only one, 
two, or three pistils. The sepals and petals are dis¬ 
played separately in Fig. 172; the five pieces marked 
s are the sepals; the four marked p are the petals. 

209. A Regular Flower is one in which the parts of each sort are all of the same 
shape and size. The flowers in Flax (Fig. 170) and in all the examples pre¬ 
ceding it are regular. While in Larkspur and Monkshood we have not only an 
l, but 






FLOWERS : THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 


71 


210. An Irregular Flower ; that is, one in which all the parts of the same sort are 
not alike. For in the Larkspur-blossom one of the sepals bears a long hollow 
spur or tail behind, which the four others have not; and the four small petals are 
of two sorts. The Violet-blossom (Fig. 173) and the Pea-blossom (Fig. 351) are 
symmetrical (except as to the pistil), but irregular. Fig. 174 shows the calyx 
and the corolla of the Violet above it displayed; s, the five sepals; p , the five petals. 
One of the latter differs from the rest, having a sac or spur at the base, which makes 
the blossom irregular. So far, most of the examples in this section are from 

211. Flowers with the parts all distinct, that is, of separate pieces; — the calyx 
of distinct sepals , the corolla of distinct petals (i. e. Polypetalous ), the stamens dis¬ 
tinct (separate, &c.), and all the parts growing in regular order out of the receptacle, 
in other words, inserted on the receptacle. These are the simplest or most natural 
flowers, the parts answering to so many leaves on a 
short branch. But as in Honeysuckles (Fig. 389) the 
leaves of the same pair are often found grown together 
into one, so in blossom-leaves, there are plenty of 

212. Flowers with their parts united or grown together. 

The flower of Morning- 

^ i»rc 

Glory (Fig. 4) is a good 
example. Here is the ca¬ 
lyx of five separate leaves 
or sepals (Fig. 176) ; but 
in the corolla (Fig. 175) 
the five petals are com¬ 
pletely united into a cup, 
just as the upper leaves 
of Honeysuckles are into 
a round plate. Then, in 
Stramonium (Fig. 177), 
the five sepals also are 
united or grown together 
almost to their tips into a 
cup or tube; and so are the five petals likewise, but not quite to their tips ; and the 
five teeth or lobes (both of the calyx and of the corolla) plainly show how many 
leaves there really are in each set. When this is so in the corolla, it forms what is 
called a 




176 

Morning-Glory. 











72 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


213. Monopctalous corolla; i. e. a corolla of one piece. It is so called, whether it 
makes a cup or tube with the border entire, as in Morning-Glory (Fig. 175), or with 
the border lobed, that is, the tips of the petals separate, as in Stramonium (Fig. 177), 
or even if the petals are united only at the bottom, as in the Potato- 
blossom (Fig. 182). The same may be said of a calyx when the 
sepals are united into a cup, only this is called Monosepalous. A mo- 
nopetalous corolla (and so of a calyx) is generally distinguishable into 
two parts, namely, its Tube or narrow part below, and its Border or 
Limb , the spreading part above. It is regular when all sides and lobes 
of it are alike, as in Fig. 175,177, &c. It is irregular when the sides 
or parts are different or unequal in size or shape, as in Sage, Dead- 
Nettle (Fig. 181), the common Honeysuckle, &c. It is 

Tubular , when long and narrow without a conspicuous border, as 
in Fig. 178, or 

Trumpet-shaped; tubular, gradually enlarging upwards, as in Trumpet-Creeper 
and Trumpet-Honeysuckle (Fig. 178) ; 

Funnel-shaped or Funnel-form (like a 
funnel or tunnel) ; when the tube opens 
gradually into a spreading border, as in 
Morning-Glory (Fig. 175) and Stramoni¬ 
um (Fig. 177) ; 

Bell-shaped or Campanulate ; when the 
tube is wide for its length and the border 
a little spreading, like a bell, as in Hare¬ 
bell (Fig. 179). 

Salver-shaped; when a slender tube 
spreads suddenly into a flat border, as in Phlox (Fig. 180). 

Wheel-shaped or Rotate ; same as salver-shaped, with the tube very short or none, 

as in the corolla of the Potato (Fig. 182) and the 
Nightshade (Fig. 183). 

Labiate or Two-lipped; when the border di¬ 
vides into two parts, or lips , an upper and a 
lower (sometimes likened to those of an animal 
with gaping mouth), as in Sage, Dead-Nettle (Fig. 
181, and the like. This is one of the irregular forms of monopetalous corolla, 
and the commonest. 





178. Trumpet- 
Honeysuckle. 




FLOWERS : THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 


73 


214. Stamens united are also common. They may be united by their filaments 
or by their anthers. In the Cardinal-flower (Fig. 184), and other Lobelias, both 
the anthers (a) and the filaments (/) are united into a 
tube. So also in the Pumpkin and Squash. Botanists 
use the following terms to express the different ways 
in which stamens may be connected. They are 

Syngenesious , when the anthers are united into a ring 
or tube, as in Lobelia (Fig. 184 a), and in the Sun¬ 
flower, and all that family. 

Monadelphous (i. e. in one brotherhood), 
when the filaments are united all into one 
set or tube, as in Lobelia (Fig. 184/), and 
the Mallow Family (Fig. 185) ; also in 
Passion-flowers and Lupines (Fig. 187). i84. Lobelia. 

Diadelphous (in two brotherhoods), when the filaments are united 
in two sets. Fig. 186 shows this in the Pea, and the like, where 
nine stamens are combined in one set and 
one stamen is left for the other. 

Triadelphous (in three brotherhoods), 
when the filaments are united or collected 
in three sets, as in the Common St. John’s-wort or Hy¬ 
pericum (Fig. 297); and 

Polyadelphous (in many brotherhoods), when combined 
in more than three sets, as in some St. John’s-worts. 

215. Pistils united are very common. Two, three, four, 
or more grow together at the time of their formation, 
and make a Compound Pistil. Indeed, wherever there 
is a single pistil to a flower, it is much oftener a compound pistil than a simple 
one. But, of course, when the pistils of a flower are more than one, they are all 
simple. Pistils may be united in every degree, and by their ovaries only, by their 
styles only (as they are slightly in Prickly-Ash), or even by their stigmas only (as 
in Milkweeds), or by all three. But more commonly the ovaries are united into 
one Compound Ovary , while the styles or stigmas are partly separate or distinct. 
Three degrees of union are shown in these figures. Fig. 188, two pistils of a Saxi¬ 
frage, their ovaries united only part way up (cut across both above and below). 




185. Mallow. 







74 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 



Fig. 189, pistil of Common St. John’s-wort, plainly composed of three simple ones, 
with their ovaries completely united, while their slender styles are separate. 

Fig. 190, same of Shrubby St. 
John’s-wort, like the last, but with 
the three styles also grown together 
into one, the little stigmas only sepa¬ 
rate ; but as it gets older this style 
generally splits down into three, and 
when the pod is ripe it also splits 
' into three, plainly showing that this 
compound pistil consists of three 
united into one. On turning now 
to Fig. 8 and Fig. 10 to 12 on the 
same page, it will be seen that the 
pistil in Morning-Glory and in Lily 
Compound Pistils of two and three ceiis. is a compound one, made of three 

united even to their stigmas. This is ,shown externally, by the stigma being some¬ 
what three-lobed in both. And it becomes perfectly evident on cutting the ovary 
in two, bringing to view the three cells (Fig. 12, as in Fig. 189, 190), each an¬ 
swering to one simple ovary. 

216. So compound ovaries generally have as many cells as there 
are simple pistils or pistil-leaves in their composition; and have the 
placentas (199) bearing the seeds all joined in the centre: that is, the 
placentas or compound placenta in the axis. But sometimes the 
partitions or divisions between the cells vanish, as in Pinks: then 
the compound pistil is only one-celled. And sometimes there never 
were any partitions; but the pistil was formed of two, 
three, or more open pistil-leaves grown together from 
the first by their edges, just as petals join to make a 
monopetalous corolla. Then the ovules or seeds, or 
the placentas that bear them, are parietal , that is, are 
borne on the parietes or wall of the ovary. Fig. 191 
is the lower part of a compound ovary, with three pa¬ 
rietal placentas or seed-bearing lines; and Fig. 192 is 
a diagram, to explain how such a pistil is supposed to be made of three leaves united 
by their edges, and these edges bearing the ovules or seeds. 




One-celled compound ovary, with placentas 
parietal. 










FLOWERS : THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 


75 


217. Flowers with one set of Organs united with another. The natural way is, for 
all the parts to stand on the receptacle or end of the flower-stalk, — the stem-part 
of the blossom (191). Then the parts are 
said to be free , or to be inserted on the 
receptacle. So it is in the Buttercup, Lily, 

Trillium (Fig. 162), Flax, &c. But in many 
flowers one set of organs grows fast to an¬ 
other set, or, as we say, is inserted on it. 

For instance, we may have the Petals and 
Stamens inserted on the Calyx , as in the 
Cherry and all the Rose family. Fig. 193 
is a flower of a Cherry, cut through the 
middle lengthwise, to show the petals and stamens growing on the tube or cup 

of the calyx. The meaning of it is that all 
these parts have grown together from their 
earliest formation. Next we may have the 
Calyx cohering or grown fast to the Ovary , 
or at least its cup or lower part grown 
to the ovary, and forming a part of the 
thickness of its walls, as in the Currant and 
Gooseberry, the Apple and Hawthorn. Fig. 
194 is a flower of Hawthorn cut through 
lengthwise to show this. In such cases 
all other parts of the blossom appear to grow on the ovary. So the ovary is said 
to be inferior , or, which is the same thing, 
the calyx (i. e. its lobes or border) and the 
rest of the blossom, superior. Or else we 
say “ calyx coherent with the ovary ,” which 
is best, because it explains the thing. 

Stamens inserted on the Corolla. The 
stamens and the corolla generally go to¬ 
gether. And when the corolla is of one 
piece (i. e. monopetalous, 213), the stamens 
almost always adhere to it within, more or 
less; that is, are borne or “ inserted on the 













76 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


corolla.” Fig. 195 is the corolla of Morning-Glory laid open, to show the stamens 
inserted on it, i. e. grown fast to it, towards the bottom. We may even have the 
Stamens inserted on the Style , that is, united with it even up to the stigma. It is 
so in the Orchis family. 

218. Gymnospermous or Open and Naked-seeded Pistils. This is the very peculiar 
pistil which belongs to Pines, Spruces, Cedars, and all that family of plants; and it 
is the simplest of all. For here the pistil is an open leaf or scale, bearing two or 
three ovules on its upper or inner surface. Each scale of a Pine-cone is an open 
pistil, and the ovules, instead of being enclosed in an ovary which forms a pod, are 

naked, and exposed to the pollen shed by the stamen-bearing 
flowers, which falls directly upon them. Fig. 196 is a view 
of the upper side of an open pistil or scale from a forming 
Larch-cone, at flowering-time, showing the two ovules borne 
on the face of it, one on each side near the bottom. Fig. 
197 is the same grown larger, the ovules becoming seeds. 
When ripe and dry, the scales turn back, and the naked 
seeds peel off and fall away. 

219. Plants which have such open scales for pistils accordingly take the name of 
Gymnospermous or Naked-seeded. The Pine family is the principal example 

of the kind (see p. 201). All other Flowering plants are 

Angiospermous, that is, have their ovules and seeds produced in a seed-vessel 
of some sort. 



Analysis of the Section. 

168. Arrangement of Flowers, or Inflorescence. 169. Situation of Flower-buds : terminal and axil¬ 
lary. 170. Solitary flowers. 171. Flower-clusters. 172. Bracts and Bractlets. 173, 174. Flower- 
stalks: Peduncle and Pedicels. 175. Kinds of flower-clusters. 176. Raceme; order of opening of the 
blossoms. 177. Corymb. 178. Umbel. 179. Comparison with Raceme, &c. 180. Head. 181. Com¬ 
parison with the Umbel, and, 182. the Spike. 183. Catkin or Ament. 184. Spadix. 185. Its Spathe. 
186. Involucre. 187. Compound Clusters: Umbellets; Involucel. 188. Panicle; Thyrse. 189. Cyme. 
190. Fascicle. 

191. Flowers: their parts illustrated by the Stonecrop: 192. A pattern flower. 193. Leaves of flower 
or Perianth. 194. Petal; its Blade and Claw. 195. Stamen; its parts. 196. Pollen; its structure 
and use. 197. Pistil ; its parts. 198. Nature of the flower; its parts answer to leaves. 198\ How a 
stamen answers to a leaf. 199. How a pistil answers to a leaf: Placenta. 

200. Sorts of Flowers : one general plan : 201. Varied in several ways. 202. Complete flower. 
203. Perfect flower. 204. Incomplete flower: apetalous; naked. 205. Imperfect or separated flowers: 
staminate or sterile ; pistillate or fertile; monoecious, dioecious, or polygamous. 206. Neutral flowers. 


FRUIT. 


77 


207. Symmetrical flowers. 208. Unsymmetrical flowers. 209. Regular flowers. 210. Irregular 
flowers. 

211. Flowers with the parts distinct. 212. With their parts grown together. 213. Monopetalous 
corolla, &c.: its varieties in form. 214. Stamens united ; syngenesious, monadelphous, diadelphous, 
triadelphous, and polyadelphous. 215. Pistils united into a Compound Pistil: illustrations. 216. Those 
with two or more cells and placentas in the centre; of one cell with placentas parietal or on the walls. 

217. Flowers with one set of organs united with another; as petals and stamens with the calyx; the 
tube or cup of the calyx with the ovary; stamens with the corolla; or with the style. 

218. Gymnospermous or Naked-seeded Pistil of Pines, &c. 219. Division of plants on this account. 


Section IY. — Fruit and Seed. 

§ 1. Seed-Vessels. 

220. After the flower comes the Fruit. The ovary of the flower becomes the 
Seed-vessel (or Pericarp) in the fruit. The ovules are now seeds. 

221. A Simple Fruit is a seed-vessel formed by the ripening of one pistil (with 
whatever may have grown fast to it in the flower, such as 
the tube of the calyx in many cases, 217). Simple fruits 
may be most conveniently classified into Fleshy Fruits , 

Stone Fruits , and Dry Fruits. 

222. The principal sorts of fleshy fruits are the Berry , 
the Pepo, and the Pome. 

223. A Berry is fleshy or pulpy throughout. Grapes, 
tomatoes, gooseberries, currants, 
and cranberries are good ex¬ 
amples. (Fig. 198 shows a 
cranberry cut in two.) Oranges 
and lemons are only a kind of 
berry with a thicker and leath¬ 
ery rind. 

224. The Pepo or Gourd Fruit 
(such as a squash, melon, cu¬ 
cumber, and bottle-gourd, Fig. 199) is only a sort of 
berry with a harder rind. 

225. A Pome or Apple-Fruit is the well-known fruit of 
the Apple, Pear, Quince, and Hawthorn. It comes from a compound pistil with 
a coherent calyx-tube (that is, from such a flower as Fig. 194), and this calyx, 







78 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 



growing very thick and fleshy, makes the whole eatable part or flesh of the fruit 
in the haw and the quince. The real seed-vessels in the quince (Fig. 201), 
apple (Fig. 200), and the like, consist of the five thin, parchment¬ 
like cells of the core, containing the seeds. In the quince, all the 
flesh is calyx. But in the pear and apple the flesh of the core, 
viz. all inside of the circle of greenish dots which are seen on cut¬ 
ting the apple across (Fig. 200), belongs to the receptacle of the 
flower, which here rises so as to surround the real seed-vessels. 
Cutting the apple lengthwise, these dots come to view as slender 
greenish lines, separating what belongs to the core from what be¬ 
longs to the calyx: they are the vessels which in the blossom 
belong to the petals and the stamens above. In the haw, the cells 
become thick and stony, and so form a kind of 

226. Stone-Fruit or Drupe, Plums, cherries, and peaches (Fig. 
202 ) are the commonest and best examples of the stone-fruit. It 
is a fruit in which the outer part becomes 
fleshy or pulpy, like a berry, while the 
inner part becomes hard or stony, like a 
So the Stone (or Putamen , as the botanist terms it) 
not belong to the seed, but to the fruit. It has the 
seed in it, with coats of its own. 

227. Dry Fruits are those that ripen without flesh or 
pulp. They are either dehiscent or indehiscent. Dehis¬ 
cent seed-vessels are those which split or burst open, in 
some regular way, to discharge the seeds. Indehiscent 
seed-vessels are those that remain closed, retaining the seed until they grow, or 
until the seed-vessel decays. All stone fruits and fleshy 
fruits are of course indehiscent. 

228. The sorts of indehiscent dry fruits that we need 
to distinguish are the Akene , the Grain , the Nut, and 
the Key. 

229. The Akene includes all dry, one-seeded, closed, 
small fruits, such as are generally mistaken for naked 

seeds; such, for instance, as the little seed-like fruits of Buttercups. (Fig. 203 is one 
of these, whole, a good deal enlarged; Fig. 204, one with part of the wall cut away.) 


nut. 

does 






FRUIT. 


79 


That they are not seeds is plain from the way they are produced, and from their 
bearing a style or stigma, at least when young. They are evidently pistils ripened; 
and on cutting them open, the seed is found whole within (Fig. 204). 

230. A Graill (or Caryopsis) is the same as an akene, except that the thin seed- 
vessel adheres firmly to the whole surface of the seed. Indian corn, 
wheat, rye, and all such kinds of grain are examples. 

231. A Nut is a hard-shelled, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, like an 
akene, but on a larger scale. Beechnuts, chestnuts, and acorns (Fig. 

205) are familiar examples. In all these the nut is surrounded by 
a kind of involucre, called a Cupule or Cup , which, however, is no 
part of the fruit. In the Oak, the cupule is a scaly cup; in the 
Beech and Chestnut, it is a kind of bur; in the Hazel, it is a leaf-like 
cup or covering; in Hop-Hornbeam, it is a thin and closed bag. 

The fruit of the Walnut, Butternut, and the like, is between a drupe 
and a nut, having a fleshy outer layer. 

232. A Key or Key-Fruit (called by botanists a Samara) is like an akene or nut, 
or any other indehiscent, one-seeded fruit, only it is winged. The 
fruits of the Ash (Fig. 206) and of the Elm (Fig. 207) are of this 
kind. That of the Maple consists of two keys partly joined at the base, 
both from one flower (Fig. 208). 

233. Dehiscent Fruits, or dry fruits which split or burst open in some 
regular way, take the general name of 

234. Pods. These generally split lengthwise when ripe and dry. 
Pods formed of a simple pistil mostly open down 
their inner edge, namely, that 
which answers to the united mar¬ 
gins of the pistil-leaf. Compare 
Fig. 160 with Fig. 209 : the latter 
is the simple pod of a Marsh- 
Marigold open after ripening, and 
the seeds fallen, so becoming a 
leaf again, as it were. Some such 

2os pods also split down the back as 

Pair of Keys. well as down the inner side; that 0pened Folllcle - 

is, along what answers to the midrib of the leaf; as do pea-pods (Fig. 211). 

6 




207 

Key. 



205 

Nut and Cupule, 





80 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 




235. A Follicle is such a simple pod which opens down one side only. The pods 
of Peony, Columbine, and Marsh-Marigold (Fig. 210) are follicles. 

236 . A Legume is a pod of a simple pistil, which splits into two 

pieces. It is the fruit of the Pea or Pulse family. 

Fig. 211 is a legume of the Pea, open, separated into 
its two valves. 

237. A Capsule is the pod of any compound pistil. 

When capsules open regularly, they either split through 
the partitions , or where these would be, as in the pod of St. John’s- 
wort (Fig. 212) ; this divides them into so many follicles, as it were, 
which open down the inner edge: or else they split open into the 
hack of the cells , as in the pods of the Lily, the Iris 
(Fig. 213), &c. 

238. The pieces into which a pod splits are called 
its Valves. So a follicle (Fig. 210) is 

one-valved ; a legume (Fig. 211), two-valved ; the cap¬ 
sules in Fig. 212 and 213, both three-valved , &c. 

239. Two or three forms of capsule have peculiar 
names. The principal sorts are the Silique , the Silicle , 
and the Pyxis. 

240. A Silique (Fig. 214) is the pod of the Cress 
family. It is slender, and splits into two 
valves or pieces, leaving behind a partition 
in a frame which bears the seeds. 

241. A Silicle or Pouch is only a silique Capsules, opening. 

not much longer than broad. Fig. 215 is the silicle of 
Shepherd’s Purse; Fig. 216, the same 
with one valve fallen. 

242. A Pyxis is a pod which opens 
crosswise, the top separating as a lid. 

Fig. 217 shows it in the Common 

■> Purslane; the lid falling off. 

243. There remain a few sorts of 

fruits which are more or less compound or complex. They may be 217 . p Y xie. 
classed under the heads of Aggregated, Accessory, and Multiple fruits. 




216 215 

Silicle. 

















FRUIT. 


81 


244. Aggregated Fruits are close clusters of simple fruits all of the same flower. 
The raspberry and the blackberry are good examples. In these, each grain is a 
drupelet or stone-fruit, like a cherry or peach on a very small scale. 

245. Accessory Fruits are those in which the flesh or conspicuous part belongs to 
some accessory (i. e. added or altered) part, separate from the seed-vessel. So that 
what we eat as the fruit is not the fruit at all in a strict botanical sense, but a calyx, 
receptacle, or something else which surrounds or 
accompanies it. Our common checkerberry is a 
simple illustration. Here the so-called berry is a 
free or separate calyx, vdiich after flowering be¬ 
comes thick and fleshy, and encloses the true seed- 
vessel, as a small pod within. Fig. 218 shows the 
young pod, partly covered by the loose calyx. 

Fig. 219 is the ripe checkerberry, cut through the middle lengthwise, the calyx now 
thick, juicy, and eatable, and enlarged so as to enclose the small, dry pod. 

246. A Rose-hip (Fig. 220) is a kind of accessory fruit, looking like a pear or a 
haw. But it consists of the tube of the calyx, lined 
by a hollow receptacle, which bears the real fruits, 
or seed-vessels, in the form of bony akenes. Fig. 
221, a rose-hip when in flower, cut through length¬ 
wise, shows the whole plan of it: the pistils are seen 
attached to the sides of the urn-shaped receptacle, 
and their styles, tipped with the stigmas, project a 
little from the cavity, near the 
stamens, which are borne on 
the rim of the deep cup. 

247. A Strawberry is an ac¬ 
cessory fruit of a different shape. Fig. 222 is a forming one, 
at flowering time, divided lengthwise : below is a part of the 
calyx; above this, a large oval or conical receptacle, its whole 
surface covered with little pistils. In ripening this grows 
•• vastly larger, and becomes juicy and delicious. So that, in fact, what is called a 
berry is only the receptacle of the flower, or the end of the flower-stalk, grown very 
large and juicy, and not a seed-vessel at all, but bearing plenty of one-seeded dry 
seed-vessels (akenes, 229), so small that they are mistaken for seeds. 



222. Young Strawberry. 



220 221 
Rose-hip. 









82 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 



Mulberry. 


248. Multiple Fruits are masses of simple or accessory fruits belonging to differ¬ 
ent flowers, all compacted together. Mulberries (Fig. 223) are of this sort. They 
look like blackberries, but each grain belongs to a separate 
flower; and the eatable pulp is not even the seed-vessel of that, 
but is a loose calyx grown pulpy, just like that of Checker- 
berry, and surrounding an akene, which is generally taken for a 
seed. The pine-apple is much like a mulberry on a large scale. 
A fig is a multiple fruit, being a hollow flower-stalk grown pulpy, 
the inside lined by a great number of minute flowers. 

249. So, under the name of fruit very different things are 
eaten. In figs it is a hollow flower-stalk; in pine-apples and 
mulberries, clusters of flower-leaves, as 
well as the stalk they cover; in straw¬ 
berries, the receptacle of a flower; in blackberries, the 
same, though smaller, and a cluster of little stone-fruits 
that cover it; in raspberries, the little stone-fruits in a 
cluster, without the receptacle. In checkerberries, quinces, 
and (as to all but the core) apples and pears, we eat a 
fleshy enlarged calyx; in peaches and other stone-fruits, 
the outer part of a seed-vessel; in grapes, gooseberries, 

blueberries, and cranberries, the whole 
seed-vessel, grown rich and pulpy. 

250. The Cone of Pine (Fig. 224) and 
the like is a sort of multiple fruit. Each 
scale is a whole pistillate flower, con¬ 
sisting of an open pistil leaf, ripened, and 

bearing on its upper face one or two naked seeds,—as explained at the end of the last 
section (218, 219). Fig. 225 shows the upper side of one of the thick Scales taken 
off, bearing one seed; the other, removed, is shown, with its wing, in Fig; 226. 

§ 2. Seeds. 

252. A Seed is an ovule fertilized and matured, and with a germ or embryo 
formed in it. 

253. In the account of the growth of plants from the seed, at the beginning of 
the book (Chapter I. Section I.), seeds have already been considered sufficiently 




224 

Pitch-pine Cone. 



SEEDS. 


83 


for our purpose. As the pupil advances farther in his botanical studies, he will 
learn much more about them, as well as about fruits and flowers, in the Lessons 
in Botany, and other works. 

254. A seed consists of its Coats and its Kernel. Besides the true seed-coats, 
which are those of the ovule, an outer loose covering, generally an imperfect one, 
is occasionally superadded while the seed is growing. This is called an Aril. 
Mace is the aril of the nutmeg. The scarlet pulpy covering of the seeds of the 
Strawberry-tree and the Staff-tree or Waxwork is also an aril. 

255. The Seed-Coats are commonly two, an outer and an inner; the latter gen¬ 
erally thin and delicate. The outer coat is sometimes close and even, and fitted to 

the kernel, as in Morning-Glory (Fig. 227); some¬ 
times it is furnished with a tuft of long hairs, as in 
Milkweed (Fig. 229), or else is covered with long 
woolly hairs, as in the Cotton-plant, where they 
form that most useful material, Cotton-wool. In 
some cases the outer coat is extended into a 
thin border or wing, as in the Trumpet-Creeper 
(Fig. 228). Catalpa-seeds have a fringe-like wing 
or tuft at each end. The seeds of Pines are 
winged at one end (Fig. 226). All these tufts 
and wings are contrivances for rendering such seeds buoyant, so that, when shed, 
they may be dispersed by the wind. Thistle-down, and the like, is a similar con¬ 
trivance on the fruit or akene. 

256. The seed is often supported by a stalk of its own, the Seed-stalh . Where 
the seed separates, it leaves a mark, called the Scar or Hilum. This is conspicu¬ 
ous in a bean and a pea, and is remarkably large in a horsechestnut. 

257. The Kernel is the whole body of the seed within the coats. It consists of 
the j Embryo, and of the Albumen, when there is any. 

258. The Albumen is a stock of prepared food, for the embryo to live upon at the 
outset, in those cases where it has not a similar supply laid up in its cotyledons 
(32 - 35, 45). In Fig. 17, 44, and 49, the seeds have albumen. In Fig. 25, 32, 40, 

., and 42, they have none, but the whole kernel consists of 

259. TllC Embryo, or rudimentary plantlet in miniature, the body in the seed 
which grows. To this the seed, the fruit, and the blossom are all subservient. The 
albumen of the seed, when there is any, is intended to flourish the embryo when it 



84 


HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 


grows, until it can provide for itself; the seed-coats to protect it, especially after it 
is shed; the seed-vessel, to protect it and to nourish it while forming; the stamens 
and pistil, to originate it. 

260. The embryo consists of its Radicle or original stemlet, from one end of 
which the root starts, from the other the stem is continued; also of one or more 
Cotyledons or Seed-leaves , and often of a Plumule or bud for continuing the stem 
upwards. How the embryo grows into a plant, was fully explained at the com¬ 
mencement of this book. 


Analysis of the Section. 


Fruits are . 


Simple Fruits are 


§ 1. Table of Kinds of Fruit. 


Paragr. 


1. Simple: seed-vessels of one pistil,.221 

2. Aggregated : clusters of seed-vessels all of the same flower, . 244 

3. Accessory: the flesh, &c. external to and separate from the pistil, 245-247 

4. Multiple : composed of the simple or accessory fruits of more than 

one flower,. . 248 


' Fleshy Fruits (222), such as the 
Stone-Fruits, or the . 


' Indehiscent, 228, 


Dry Fruits, 227, 


' Of a Simple 
Pistil, 


Dehiscent, or Pods, 233, 


of a Compound 
Pistil, 


Berry, 

223 

Pepo, 

224 

Pome, 

225 

Drupe, 

226 

Akene, 

229 

Grain, 

230 

Nut, 

231 

Key, 

232 

Follicle,235 

Legume, 

236 

Capsule, 

237 

SlLIQUE, 

240 

SlLICLE, 

241 

Pyxis, 

242 


Multiple Fruits are f Angiospermous, or closed, 219,248. 

( Gymnospermous, or naked-seeded, 218, 219, .... Cone, 250 

§2. Seeds. — 252. What a seed is. 253. Its nature already considered. 254. Its parts; Aril 
occasionally met with. 255. Its coats, and the appendages, wings, &c. 256. Seed-stalk, and scar. 
257. Kernel. 258. Albumen, sometimes present; its office. 259. Embryo, to which all the other parts 
of the seed, the fruit, and the flower are subservient. 260. Parts of the Embryo: Radicle, or Stem- 
let; Cotyledons, or Seed-leaves; Plumule, or Bud. 









CHAPTER III. 


WHY PLANTS GROW, WIIAT THEY ARE MADE FOR, AND WHAT THEY DO. 

261. We have now become acquainted with all the organs of plants, both those 
concerned in their life and growth, or vegetation , and those concerned in multiplying 
their numbers, that is, in reproduction. The first being the root, stem, and leaves; 
the second, the flowers (essentially the stamens and pistils), with their result, fruit 
and seed. We have learned, also, how plants grow from the seed, produce part 
after part, branch after branch, and leaf after leaf, and at length blossom and go to 
seed. We see that plants, with their organs, that is, instruments , are a kind of liv¬ 
ing machines at work; and it is now time to ask, How they operate , What they bring 
to pass, and What is the objector the result of their doings. Such questions as these, 
young people, with their curiosity awakened, would be likely to ask, and they 
ought to be answered. To understand these things completely, one must know 
something of chemistry and vegetable anatomy,* — which we do not propose here 
to teach. But a general account of the matter may be given in a simple way, 
which shall be perfectly intelligible, and may give a clear idea of the purpose which 
plants were created to fulfil in the world, and how they do it. Let us begin by 
considering 

262. The Plant ill Action. Take any living plant, — it matters not what one,— 
and consider what it is doing. For greater simplicity, take some young plant or 
seedling, where vegetation goes on just as in a full-grown herb or tree, only on a 
smaller scale. The plant is 

263. Absorbing, or drawing in what it lives upon, from the soil and the air. This 
is moisture, air, and other matters which the rain, as it soaks into the ground, may 
have dissolved on its way to the roots. It is by the roots, lodged in the damp soil, 
that most of the moisture which plants feed upon is taken in, and with this they 
always get some earthy matter. This earthy matter makes the ashes which are 
left after burning a piece of wood, a leaf, or any part of a plant. Moisture is 

* After studying this chapter, the pupil will be ready to learn more of the subject in the Lessons in 
Botany and Vegetable Physiology . Lessons 22,23, 24, and 25 treat of Vegetable Anatomy; and Lesson 
26, of the Plant doing its work. 




86 


WHY PLANTS GROW, 


also absorbed by the leaves, either from drops of rain or dew, or from the vapor of 
water in the air. Air is largely absorbed by the leaves, and some also by the roots, 
either as dissolved in water, or else directly from the crevices and pores of the 
soil, which are filled with air. 

264. Plants absorb their food by their surface. Animals have an internal cavity, 
— a stomach , — to hold their food; and from the stomach it is taken into the 
system. Plants have nothing of this kind. They absorb their food by their sur¬ 
face, — by the skin, as it were; and when very young and with the whole sur¬ 
face fresh and thin, by one part almost as much as another. But as they grow 
older and the skin hardens, they absorb mostly by their fresh rootlets and the tips of 
the roots, and by the leaves, — the former spread out in the soil, the latter spread 
out in the air. For while the skin or bark of the older c parts of the roots is hard¬ 
ening, new tips and rootlets are always forming in growing plants, with a fresh sur¬ 
face, which absorbs freely. And as to the Jeaves, th6y are renewed every year 
(even evergreens produce a new crop annually, and the old ones fall after a year 
or two) ; and the skin of every leaf, especially that of the under side, is riddled 
with thousands of holes or little mouths (called Breathing-pores ), which open into 
the chambers or winding passages of the pulp of the leaf, so that the air may cir¬ 
culate freely throughout the whole. 

265. Plants absorb their food all in the fluid form. They are unable to take 
in anything in a solid state. They imbibe or drink in all their food, in the form of 
water, with whatever the water has dissolved, and of air or vapor, by one or both 
of which their leaves and roots are surrounded. The reason they imbibe only fluid 
is this. The roots, leaves, and all the rest of the plant, under the microscope, are 
seen to be made up of millions of separate little cavities, each cut off from the 
surrounding ones by closed partitions of membrane. All that the plants take into 
their system has to pass through these partitions of membrane,— which fluid (air 
or moisture) alone can do. 

266. The common juices of plants are called Sap. What they take in from the 
soil and the air, not being digested or made into vegetable matter, is called Crude 
Sap. All that the roots imbibe has to be carried up to the leaves to be digested 
there. So while the roots are absorbing, the stem is 

267. Conveying the Crude Sap to the Leaves. There is no separate set of vessels, 
and no open tubes or pipes for the sap to rise through in an unbroken stream, in 
the way people generally suppose. The stem is made up, like the root, of cavities, 


AND WHAT THEY DO. 


87 


or cells divided off by whole partitions ; and to rise an inch the sap generally has 
to pass through several hundred such partitions. When there is much wood, the sap 
rises mostly through that. Now the fibres and the vessels of the wood are tubes, 
most of them several times longer than wide; but their ends do not open into 
each other; a closed partition divides each cavity from the next, which the sap has 
to get through some way or other. How it gets through so readily, we do not 
altogether know; but there is no doubt about the fact. 

268. Carried into the leaves, and distributed through their broad surface, the 
crude sap is exposed to the light and air. A large part of it is water; and each 
drop of this serves to bring up a minute portion of earthy matter, which it dissolved 
out of the soil. Most of the water, no longer wanted, is evaporated from the leaves 
by the warmth of the sun, and exhaled; that is, it escapes in vapor into the air, 
mostly through the breathing-pores (264). What remains, the plant is at the same 
time 

269. Digesting or Assimilating, Assimilating is the proper word. To assimilate 
is to make similar, or to turn into its own substance. This is just what plants do 
in their leaves. They change into vegetable matter that which was mineral matter 
(air, earth, or water) before. This they do only in the leaves, or other green parts, 
and in these only when they are exposed to the light of day, that is, to the influ¬ 
ence of the sun. We see, therefore, why plants are so dependent on the light. 
They cannot grow without it, except so far as they are fed by vegetable matter 
prepared beforehand; — as the seedling is fed at the beginning, by vegetable matter 
of the parent plant stored up in the seed (Chap. II. Sect. II.) ; and potato-shoots, 
by that provided in the tuber or potato (74, 75), &c. This enables them to begin 
their growth in the dark. But the inheritance only serves to set up the young 
plants; when they have exhausted it, they have to work for themselves, to take 
in air and water, and a little earth, and assimilate it, — i. e. make vegetable matter 
of it, — in their leaves or other green parts, with the help of sunshine. This they 
do throughout the whole growing season. 

270. The new-made vegetable matter is dissolved in the water or the sap in the 
leaf, and forms a thin mucilage. This is prepared or Elaborated Sap, fit to be 

• • used in growth; for it contains the same material as that which the plant itself is 
built of. It is to the plant just what the prepared clay is to the earthen vessel, or 
to the bricks of which the house is built. It has only to be conveyed where it is 
wanted and used for growing. 


88 


WHY PLANTS GROW, 


271. Some Forms and Changes of Vegetable Matter, It may be. used at once, or it 
may be stored up until it is wanted. In annual herbs, as already explained (68), 
nearly all of it is used for growth or for blossoming, as fast as it is made. In 
biennials, like the Beet, Carrot, and Turnip (70), a great part of it is stored 
up somewhere, generally in the root, and used the next year. In such perennials 
as the Potato, a part is laid up in the tubers (which are all of the plant that 
survives the winter), to begin a vigorous growth the next season. In shrubs and 
trees a part is annually deposited in the newest wood and bark, to be used for de¬ 
veloping the buds the next spring. In all, a portion is deposited, as we know, 
sometimes in the fruit, always in the seed, for the use of the embryo or new plant, 
at the beginning of its growth. 

272. When vegetable matter is laid up for future use, a large part of it is gen¬ 
erally in the form of starch. Nearly the whole bulk of a potato, or of a grain of 
corn, is starch. This consists of little grains which are like mucilage solidified, and 
they may be turned into mucilage again. When fire plant takes up a deposit of 
starch into its system, as fast as it dissolves it in the sap it generally changes it into 
sugar. Mucilage, starch, sugar, and plant-fabric, all have the same chemical com¬ 
position, or very nearly; and the plant readily changes one into the other as it needs. 
Notice the changes of vegetable matter in a plant of Indian Corn. In the leaves, 
where it is made, the elaborated sap is in the form of mucilage; in the stalk, at 
flowering-time, while on its way to form and nourish the blossoms and grains, it 
turns sweet, being changed into sugar; in the grain, a part is changed into starch 
and laid up there: when the grain germinates, the starch is dissolved and changed 
back into sugar; and in the growing plantlet which it nourishes, the sugar is at 
length changed into plant-fabric. 

273. Circulation or Conveyance of Elaborated Sap, or Dissolved Vegetable Matter. The 
new-made vegetable matter rarely accumulates in the leaves where it is made, ex¬ 
cept in the Century-plant, Houseleek (Fig. 65), and other fleshy-lealved plants. 
It is generally distributed through all the plant (that is, through all its living parts), 
or carried especially to where a stock is to be laid up, or where growth is taking 
place. So the elaborated sap, passing out of the leaves, is received into the inner 
bark, at least in trees and shrubs, — or in herbs it may descend through the soft 
parts generally, — and a part of what descends finds its way even to the ends 
of the roots, and is all along diffused laterally into the stem, where it meets 
and mingles with the ascending crude sap or raw material. So there is no separate 


AND WHAT THEY DO. 


89 


circulation of the two kinds of sap; and no crude sap exists separately in any 
part of the plant. Even in the root, where it enters, this mingles at once with 
some elaborated sap already there, and as it rises through the stem they mix more 
and more. But whatever is not assimilated must be, before the plant can use it; 
that which has been assimilated, can be used wherever it may be. 

274. The elaborated sap, like the crude, is contained in the cavities, cells, or 
short closed tubes which make up the fabric of the plant, and circulates or passes 
from one to another through the partitions. How it passes through, and what at¬ 
tracts it where it is wanted, we do not very well know. And. what we do know 
could not be well explained to the young beginner, for whom this book is written. 
The same may be said about 

275. Growth. Growth is the increase of a living thing in size and substance. 
In plants it is done by the increase in the number of the cells (or cavities divided 
off by partitions) which make up the fabric, and by the increase of each in size to 
a certain extent. That is, growth is the building-up of the plant, or of additions to 
it, out of vegetable matter. And this vegetable matter was made in the leaves 
(either of the same plant or of its parent), out of mineral matter drawn from the 
earth and the air, — was mostly made of air and water. For the earthy part 
which is left behind when we burn a plant (and so turn all the vegetable matter 
back into air and vapor of water again) forms only a very small part of its bulk. 

276. If the pupil would learn more particularly how growth takes place, and 
how plants change mineral into vegetable matter, they must study three or four les¬ 
sons of the Lessons in Botany already referred to. But our short and simple 
account of the plant in action, i. e. vegetating , is sufficient for answering the main 
question, viz.: — 

277. What Plants do. Vegetation consists essentially of two things, namely, as¬ 
similation and growth. In assimilation plants are changing mineral matter — air, 
water, and a little earth — into vegetable matter; and in growth this vegetable 
matter is wrought into all manner of beautiful and useful forms. This is the work 
which the vast variety and infinite number of plants over all the earth are busily 
engaged in. It is their peculiar work ; for only plants can live upon (or assimilate) 
mineral matter; they only have the power of changing air, water, and earth into 
organic matter. 

278. What is the effect of this action of plants, especially upon the air we 
breathe ? And what becomes of all the vast amount of vegetable matter which 


90 


WHY PLANTS GROW, 


plants have been making, day by day, since God said, Let the earth bring forth 
grass , and the herb yielding seed, and tjie fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind, 
whose seed is in itself, upon the earth, — and it was so ? The answer to these ques¬ 
tions will show us plainly 

279. Wliat Plants are made for. In the first place, in the very act of making 
vegetable matter, plants fulfil one great purpose of their existence, that is, 

280. They purify the air for animals. That part of the air which renders it fit 
for breathing is called oxygen ; this makes up about one fifth part of the air we 
breathe. At every breath animals take in some of this oxygen and change it 
into carbonic acid; that is, they combine the oxygen with carbon from their blood, 
which makes carbonic acid, and breathe out this carbonic acid into the air, in place 
of the oxygen they drew in. Now this carbonic acid is unfit for the breathing of 
animals,— so much so, that, if it were to increase so as to make any considerable part 
of the atmosphere, man and other animals could not live in it. But plants prevent 
the carbonic acid from accumulating in the air. While animals need the oxygen of 
the air, and in using it change it into carbonic acid, hurtful to them, plants need the 
carbon of this carbonic acid; indeed, it makes a very large portion of their food, — 
as we plainly see it must, when we know that about half of every part of a plant is 
carbon, that is, charcoal. And this carbonic acid is the very part of the air that 
plants use; they constantly take it from the air, decompose it in their leaves during 
sunshine, keep the carbon, and give back the oxygen pure, so keeping the air fit 
for the breathing of animals. The carbon which plants take from the air in this 
way, along with water, &c., they assimilate, that is, change into vegetable matter: 
and in doing this 

281. They make all the food which animals live upon. Animals cannot live upon 
air, water, or earth, nor are they able to change these into food which they may 
live upon. This work is done for them by plants. Vegetable matter in almost 
every form — especially as herbage, or more concentrated in the accumulations of 
nourishment which plants store up in roots, in bulbs and tubers, in many stalks, 
in fruits, and in seeds — is food for animals. “ And to every beast of the earth, and 
to every fowl of the air, and to everything that creepeth upon the earth” as well as 
to men, is given “ every green herb for meat.” Some animals take it by feeding 
directly upon vegetables; others, in feeding upon the flesh of herbivorous animals, 
receive what they have taken from plants. Man and a few other animals take in 
both ways what plants have prepared for them. But however received, and how- 


AND WHAT THEY ARE MADE FOR. 


91 


ever changed in form in the progress from plant to animal or from one animal to 
another, all the food and all the substance of all animals were made by plants. 
And this is what plants are made for. 

282. Notice also that plants furnish us not merely needful sustenance, but almost 
every comfort and convenience. Medicine for restoring, as well as food for support¬ 
ing health and strength, mainly comes from plants. 

283. They furnish all the clothing of man ; — not only what is made from the 
woolly hairs of certain seeds (cotton), or from the woody fibres of bark (linen), and 
what is spun from Mulberry-leaves by the grubs of certain moths (as silk), but 
also the skin and the fur or wool of animals, owe their origin to plants, just as 
their flesh does. 

284. They furnish utensils, tools, and building materials, in great variety; and 
even the materials which the mineral kingdom yields for man’s service (such as iron) 
are unavailable without vegetables, to supply fuel for working and shaping them. 

285. They supply all the fuel in the world; and this is one special service of that 
vegetable matter which, in the solid form of wood, does not naturally serve for food. 
Burned in our fire-places, one part of a plant may be used to cook the food fur¬ 
nished by another part, or to protect us against cold; or burned under a steam-boiler 
it may grind our corn, or'carry us swiftly from place to place. Even the coal dug 
from the bowels of the earth is vegetable matter, the remains of forests and herbage 
which flourished for ages before man existed, and long ago laid up for his present 
use. We may proceed one step farther, and explain where the heat of fuel comes 
from; for even a child may understand it. Plants make vegetable matter only in 
the light, mostly in the direct light of the sun. With every particle of carbonic 
acid that is decomposed, and vegetable matter that is made, a portion of the sun’s 
heat and light is absorbed and laid up in it. And whenever this vegetable matter 
is decomposed, as in burning it, this heat and light (how much of each, depends upon 
the mode of burning) are given out. 

286. So all our lighting as well as warming, which we do not receive directly 
from the sun, we receive from plants, in which sunlight has been stored up for our 
use. And equally so, whether we burn olive-oil or pine-oil of the present day, or 

., candles made from old peat, or coal-gas, or lard, tallow, or wax, — the latter a vege¬ 
table matter which has been somewhat changed by animals. And, finally, 

287. The natural warmth of the bodies of animals comes from the food they 
eat, and so is supplied by plants. A healthy animal, no longer growing, receives into 


92 


WHY PLANTS GROW. 


his system a daily supply of food without any corresponding increase in weight, or 
often without any increase at all. This is because he decomposes as much as he 
receives. If a vegetable-feeder, far the greater part of his food (all the starch of 
grain and bread, the sugar, oil, &c.), after being added to the blood, is decomposed, 
and breathed out from the lungs in the form of carbonic acid and water. That is 
just what it would become if set on fire and burned, as when we bum oil or tallow 
in our lamps or candles, or wood in our fire-places; and in the process, in animals 
no less than in our lamps and fire-places, the heat which was absorbed from the sun, 
when the vegetable matter was produced from carbonic acid and water, is given 
out when this matter is decomposed into carbonic acid and water again. And this 
is what keeps up the natural heat of animals. We are warmed by plants in the 
food we consume, as well as by the fuel we burn. 

288. In learning, as we have done, How Plants Grow, and Why they Grow, 
have we not learned more of the lesson of the text placed at the beginning of this 
book, and of the verses that follow ? “ Wherefore, if God so clothe the grass of the 

feld, shall he not much more clothe you ? ... . Therefore take no thought, saying, 
What shall we eat ? or, What shall we drink ? or, Wherewithal shall we he clothed ? 
For your Heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of all these things.” And 
we now perceive that causing plants to grow is the very way in which He bounti¬ 
fully supplies these needs, and feeds, clothes, warms, and shelters the myriads of 
beings He has made, and especially Man, whom He made to have dominion over 
them all. 



CHAPTER IV. 


HOW PLANTS ARE CLASSIFIED, NAMED, AND STUDIED. 

Section I. — Classification. 

289. Classification in Botany is the arrangement of plants according to their 
kinds and according to their resemblances. 

290. In order that the vegetable creation might be adapted to every soil, situa¬ 
tion, and climate, and to the different wants of the greatest variety of animals, as 
well'as to the many peculiar needs of mankind, God created plants in a vast num¬ 
ber of kinds. And in order that these should be perpetuated and kept distinct, 
He ordained that each should yield fruit and seed “ after its kind,” So each sort of 
plant multiplies and perpetuates itself from generation to generation. Each of 
these sorts is a 

291. Species. The individuals, or separate plants, of each sort represent that 
species, just as men and women represent the human species. The individuals of 
the same species are not always, or not commonly, exactly alike. They may differ 
in size according to their greater or less vigor; they may vary in the color of their 
blossoms, or the shape and flavor of their fruit, and yet plainly be of one species. 
It is very apt to be so in cultivated plants. The different sorts of Apples belong to 
one species; all the sorts of Pears are of one species; and so of Peaches. Such 
sorts, which have arisen in the course of time and under change of circumstances, 
are called Varieties. 

292. Varieties may be kept up with certainty by propagating from buds, that is, 
by cuttings, grafts, offsets, and the like (Chap. II. Sect. I.), but not by seeds, — at 
least when left to themselves. And varieties have nothing definite about them, but 
shade off into one another; while the species are always separate. Apple-trees 
never vary into Pear-trees, nor Pear-trees into Quince-trees. The cultivator pays 
much attention to varieties, and takes particular pains to preserve and multiply 

' them. To the botanist, who is concerned mainly with wild plants, they are of much 
less account. The botanist studies species. 

293. According to their degrees of resemblance species form Genera , Orders or 
Families , and Classes. 




94 


HOW PLANTS ARE CLASSIFIED, 


294. Genus I plural Genera. Species which are very much alike belong to the 
same genus. The genus is a group of species which have the flower and fruit 
constructed on exactly the same plan. The Cabbage and the Turnip belong to the 
same genus. The different species of Raspberry and Blackberry belong to one 
genus, — the Bramble genus. The different species of Roses compose the Bose 
genus ; of Oaks, the Oak genus ; and so on. 

295. All Order or Family (the two words meaning the same thing in Botany) is a 
kind of genus on a wider scale, consisting of genera, just as a genus consists of 
species. For example, while all the Oaks belong to the Oak genus, there are other 
trees which are a good deal like Oaks in the whole plan of their flowers, fruit, and 
seeds, so much so that we say they belong to the Oak family. Among them are the 
Chestnut, the Beech, and the Hazel; each a genus by itself, containing several 
species. So the Pear genus, the Quince genus, the Hawthorn genus, the Rose 
genus, and the Bramble genus, with many more, belong to one great order. The 
Pea genus, the Bean genus, the Locust genus, the Clover genus, and the like, 
make up another order. 

296. A Class is a great group $f orders or families, all on the same general plan. 
The Rose family, the Oak family, and a hundred others, all belong to one great 
class. Lilies, Amaryllises, Irises, Palms, Rushes, and Grasses belong to another 
great class. 

297. There are other divisions; but these are the principal ones in all classifi¬ 
cations, both of the vegetable and of the animal kingdom. And these four stages 
always rank in this way: the species under the genus, the genera under the order 
or family, and orders under the class, viz.: — 

Class, 

Order or Family, 

Genus, 

Species. .. 


Section II. — Names. 

298. The name of any plant is the name of its genus and of its species. The 
name of the genus answers to the surname or family name of people, as Smith or 
Brown . The name of the species answers to the baptismal name, as John or James. 
We distinguish persons by these two names, as John Smith and James Smith ; John 


NAMED, AND STUDIED. 


95 


Brown and James Brown , &c. In the same way, we name a plant by giving the 
name of the genus along with that of the species ; as White Oak , Red Oak , Water 
Oak. Here the first word is the name of the species, which is nothing by itself, 
but joined to the second word, which is the name of the genus, it designates the 
species of Oak; and the two together completely name the plant we mean. 
These are 

299. Popular Names , or the common names in our own language. Plants also 
have truly Scientific Botanical Names , which are the same in all countries. On 
this account they are in Latin. Some of them are the ancient Latin or Greek 
names; others are words made in later times, but all are in Latin form. Thus, the 
scientific name of the Oak genus is Quercus ; of the Ash genus, Fraxinus ; of the 
Rose genus, Rosa; of the Pear genus, Pyrus; of the Bramble or Blackberry 
genus, Rubus, &c. The names of some genera are in honor of botanists or discov¬ 
erers ; as, Linncea , named in honor of Linnaeus ; Magnolia , after Magnol; Kalmia, 
after Kalm, a pupil of Linnaeus, who travelled in this country; Claytonia, after 
Clayton, a botanist of Virginia. 

300. In the Latin or scientific name, that of the genus comes before the species. 
So the scientific name of the White Oak is Quercus alba; of Red Oak, Quercus 
rubra; of Water Oak, Quercus aquatica . In fact, these are just the popular names 
turned into Latin. It is not always so ; for what we call Post Oak is botanically 
named Quercus obtusiloba, which means an Oak with blunt lobes to the leaves. 
And our White Ash is Fraxinus Americana , meaning “ American Ash ”; Red Ash 
is Fraxinuspubescens, meaning “Downy Ash”; Black Ash is Fraxinus sambuci - 
folia , meaning “Elder-leaved Ash.” But our Green Ash is Fraxinus viridis , 
which means the same thing as the common name. 

301. The name of the genus is a substantive. That of the species is generally 
an adjective; as, viridis , green; sambucifolia , Elder-leaved; Americana , Ameri¬ 
can ; aquatica , growing in water; and so forth. 

302. Accordingly, any plant is named in two words, that is, by giving the name 
of its genus and of its species. 

303. The names of the class, order, &c. make no part of the name of the plant 
• itself. And these names differ in different systems of classification, while those of 

the genus and species are the same in all systems. 

7 


96 


HOW PLANTS ARE CLASSIFIED. 


Section III. — The Natural System. 

304. There are two kinds of classification in Botany, viz. Natural and Artificial. 
They differ in the way the genera are arranged in orders, classes, &c. 

305. An Artificial Classification is one in which plants are arranged for conven¬ 
ience of reference, or for finding out their names, without any particular care for 
bringing like things together. Tournefort made an artificial classification of plants 
by their flowers, mainly by their corolla, which was in common use in the last cen¬ 
tury until LinnaBus contrived a better one, in which the classes and orders were 
founded upon the number, position, &c. of the stamens and pistils. This was in 
general use for many years. But now we use artificial classifications only in the 
form of Tables or Analyses , as a key for finding out the family a plant we are 
studying belongs to, and so readily referring it to its place in 

306. The Natural System. In this system plants are classified according to their 
relationships, that is, according to their resemblances in all respects. The most 
important resemblances are used for the classes, &c.; the most important after these 
for the orders; more particular ones mark the genera; and matters of shape, pro¬ 
portion, color, &c. mark the species. So the whole together forms a system , in 
which all known plants are to be ranked in their natural order, each standing next 
those which it is most like in all respects; the whole forming, as it were, a great 
map, in which the classes and other great divisions might answer to countries, 
the orders to counties, and the genera to towns or parishes. 

307. Such a system is not a mere convenience for ascertaining the name of a 
plant, but is an illustration, as far as may be, of the plan of the Creator in the 
vegetable kingdom. And the Botanist sees as much to admire, and as plain evi¬ 
dences of design, in the various relations of the species of plants to each other 
(i. e. in their resemblances and their differences), as he does in the adaptation of 
one part of a plant to another, and in the various forms under which any one organ 
may appear. The different kinds of plants are parts of a great whole, like the 
members of a body, or the pieces of an harmonious but complex edifice or struc¬ 
ture ; and this whole is the Vegetable Kingdo7n. 

308. What the main divisions in the system are, may be gathered from what is 
stated in several places in Part I. In the first place, the whole vegetable kingdom 
divides into two great Series or Grades ,— a higher and a lower. The higher 
series contains all 


NAMED, AND STUDIED. 


97 


Flowering or Phalnogamous Plants, namely, those that are propagated 
by means of real flowers, producing seeds, which contain an embryo ready formed. 
The lower series consists of 

Flowerless or Cryptogamous Plants, which produce no real flowers and 
no true seeds, but only something of a simpler sort, answering to flowers and giv¬ 
ing rise to scores, which serve the purpose of seeds. 

309. This has been explained in Chapter II. Section II. p. 58. Next, the 
great series of Flowering Plants is divided into two Classes. These classes are 
distinguishable by the stem, the leaves, the flower, and the embryo or germ of the 
seed. They are: — 

Class I. Exogens, or Dicotyledons (more fully named, Exogenous or Di¬ 
cotyledonous Plants). Plants of this class, as to their stems , have the wood all 
between a separate pith in the centre and a bark on the surface, and each year the 
stem lives, it forms a new layer of wood on the surface of that of the previous year 
(111, 115 — 118). As to the leaves , they are netted-veined or reticulated, the veins 
branching and forming meshes (126, 127). As to the flowers , their parts are gen¬ 
erally in fives or fours (or the double or treble of these numbers), very rarely 
in threes. As to the embryo , or germ, it always has a pair of cotyledons or seed- 
leaves (48), or sometimes more than a pair (49). 

Class II. Endogens, or Monocotyledons (or more fully, Endogenous or 
Monocotyledonous Plants). Plants of this class, as to their stems , have their wood 
in threads mixed with the pith and scattered throughout every part, never forming 
layers, and the bark is never to be peeled off clean from the wood (112 — 114). 
The leaves are almost always parallel-veined (127 -129). The flowers have their 
parts in threes (or twice three), very rarely in twos or fours, never in fives, which 
is much the commonest number in the other class. And the embryo has but one 
cotyledon or seed-leaf (47, 50). 

310. So the class of any plant may be told from a piece of its stem alone; or 
from a single leaf, in most cases; or from a blossom; or from a seed; or from the 
plantlet as it springs from the seed, and in its first leaves shows the nature of the 
embryo. The seeds generally are not easy to study without a dissecting micro¬ 
scope, nor can we always have them growing. But the student will hardly ever 
fail to tell the class at once, by the stem, the leaves, or the flowers, and by the 
whole look of the plant. 

311. The first Class divides into two Subclasses, of very unequal size, viz.: — 


98 


HOW PLANTS ARE CLASSIFIED, 


Subclass I. Angio sperms (or Angiospermous Plants ), which have pistils of 
the common sort, in which the seed is formed and contained (16, 219). This takes 
all of the first class except the Pine family, and one or two small orders little 
known in this country. These form the 

Subclass II. Gymnosperms, that is, Gymnospermous or Naked-seeded Plants 
(218, 250). Here the ovules and seeds are naked, there being no pistil at all, as 
in the Yew, or only an open scale that answers to it, as in Pines, Cedars, &c. 

312. The first class contains about a hundred common orders or natural fam¬ 
ilies ; the second not half so many. 

313. The lower or second series, that of Flowerless or Cryptogamous Plants, 
divides into three classes, viz.: — 

Class III. Acrogens, which includes the Fem family, the Horsetail family, 
and the Club-moss family. 

Class IY. Anopiiytes, which consists of the orders of Mosses and Liverworts. 

Class Y. Tiiallophytes, which includes Lichens, the Algaa or Seaweeds, and 
the Fungi or Mushroom family. 

314. But Flowerless plants, being too difficult for the beginner, need not be 
further mentioned here. 

315. The orders or families in the natural system are pretty numerous. They 

are named, in general, after some well-known genus which may be said to repre¬ 
sent the family. Thus the order to which the Rose belongs is called the Pose 
family ; that to which Crowfoots or Buttercups belong, the Crowfoot family ; that 
to which Cress and Mustard belong, the Cress family; the Oak gives its name to 
the Oak family, the Birch to the Birch family, the Pine to the Pine family, 
and so on. Their Latin or scientific names are also generally made from the 
Latin name of a leading or well-known genus. For example, Rosa, the Rose, gives 
its name to the Rose family, viz. Rosacece, meaning Rosaceous plants; Ranun¬ 
culus, the Crowfoot genus, gives to its family the name of Ranunculacece; and 
Papaver, the Poppy, gives to its family that of Papaveracece ; Berberis, the Bar¬ 
berry, that of Berberidacece ; and so on. •• 

316. The student’s principal difficulty at the beginning will be to find out the 
order or family to which a plant belongs. This is because the orders are so numer¬ 
ous, and commonly not to be certainly distinguished by any one point. But after 
some practice, the order will be as easy to make out as the class; and in many 
cases it will be known at a glance by the strong family likeness to some plant 
which has been examined before. 


NAMED, AND STUDIED. 


99 


317. Let us now introduce our pupils to the Popular Flora , by which they may 
study the common plants they meet with, and find out their structure and their 
names. 


Section IV. — How to study Plants by the Popular Flora. 

318. Directions for gathering Specimens to Examine. Gather specimens with flowers, 
flower-buds, and also with fruits, either forming or full grown, when all these are 
to be had at the same time, as they frequently are, at least in herbs, except in 
spring. Sometimes the remains of last year’s fruit are to be found, enough to tell 
what the kind of fruit was. Very often the nature of the fruit can be told before¬ 
hand, from the pistil, either at flowering-time or soon after. However, most of 
our common plants may be made out from the blossoms and leaves only. Small 
herbs should be taken up by the roots. 

319. Specimens which are to be kept for some time, or carried to some distance 
before they are studied, should be put at once into a close-shutting tin box, where 
they will keep long without withering. Botanical boxes are made for the purpose. 
A candle-box, or any tin box with a lid, and of convenient size for carrying, will 
answer. 

320. For examining Plants to make out the structure of the flowers, fruits, &c., 
the instruments most needed are,— 

A sharp, thin-bladed pocket-knife, such as a common penknife, for making sec¬ 
tions or slices; 

A pair of small forceps, which, although not always necessary, are very conven¬ 
ient for holding little parts ; and 

A hand microscope or magnifying-glass, such as may be purchased for a dollar 
or less. A single glass, mounted in horn, or in metal, and (for carrying in the 
pocket) shutting into a case of the same material, which serves as a handle when 
open, is the commonest and best for our purpose. 

A stand-microscope is a most convenient thing, when it can be had. This has a 
glass stage under the lens or magnifying-glass, on which small flowers, or their 
parts, may be laid. This leaves both hands free for dissecting or displaying 
the minute parts, with needles mounted in handles, while the eye is examining 
them under the microscope. Common needles, mounted in the bone handles used 
for holding crochet needles, are very convenient, and cost little. A compound 



100 


HOW PLANTS ARE CLASSIFIED AND STUDIED. 


microscope, however necessary for studying vegetable anatomy, is of no use for our 
common botanical purposes, which require no high magnifying. A pocket magni¬ 
fying-glass, held in the hand, is all that is absolutely necessary. 

321. Lessons in examining Plants. How a pupil, or a class, is to proceed in 
examining any plant by our Popular Flora , for the purpose of finding out its class, 
its order or family, and then its genus and species, — that is, its name, — we will 
show by a few plain examples. 

322. Technical words or terms are used all along, which you may not remember 
the meaning of, as defined in the first part of the book; and some of them may 
not have been mentioned or explained there. Whenever you come to a word which 
you do not perfectly understand, turn at once to the Index and Dictionary, begin¬ 
ning on page 217, and look it out. There you will find it explained, or will be 
referred to the page of the book where the term is explained or illustrated. Turn 
back to the place, and read what is said about it. Do not attempt to proceed fast¬ 
er than you understand things. But by looking out and understanding the words 
as you meet with them, the principal terms used in botanical descriptions (here 
made as simple as possible) will soon be familiar, and your subsequent progress 
will be all the more rapid for the pains taken in the earlier steps. 

323. For the first example we will take a Buttercup or Crowfoot, such as may 
anywhere be met with in spring and early summer. With specimens in hand, 
turn to page 105. You ask in the first place,— 

Does the plant belong to the First Series, that of Phcenogamous or Flowering 
Plants ? Certainly; for it bears flowers, with stamens and pistils. (The Second 
Series, that of Flowerless Plants (p. 97), cofisisting of Ferns, Mosses, &c., we do 
not meddle with in this book, they requiring too much magnifying, and being too 
difficult for the young beginner.) Next you ask, — 

To which class does it belong ? The differences between the two classes are 
mentioned on page 97, and the characteristics of Class I. are illustrated on page 
105. As the stem is hollow, it may not be easy to see that it has a delicate ring 
of wood under the bark and outside of the pith (as in Fig. 230) ; but this may be 
perceived ill a cross slice under the microscope. And even if we had ripe seeds, a 
microscope and some skill in dissectioq would be required to take out the minute 
embryo, and see that it has a pair of cotyledons. But we may tell the class by the 
two other points, viz. by the leaves, and by the number of parts to the blossom. 
The leaves are plainly netted-veined, and the parts of the flower, that is, the sepals 



HOW TO USE THE POPULAR FLORA. 


101 


and the petals, are five. So the plant belongs to Class I. Proceed then with the 
“Key to the Families or Orders of Class I.” on page 106. This class has two 
subclasses. So you next ask,— 

To which subclass does the plant belong, to Angiosperms or to Gymnosperms ? 
For the character of the Gymnosperms, see the end of the Key, at the foot of 
page 111; that of Angiosperms begins the Key. The centre of the flower we are 
examining is occupied with a great number of small one-seeded pistils, each tipped 
with its short style and stigma; and the ovary is a closed bag containing an ovule 
or young seed. So the plant clearly belongs to Subclass I. Proceed then with 
the Key; which leads you next to ask,— 

To which division does the plant belong, — the Polypetalous ? (in black letters 
immediately under the subclass), or the Monopetalous ? (top of page 109), or the 
Apetalous ? (lower part of page 110). Plainly to the first or Polypetalous division; 
for there is both a calyx and a corolla, and the latter is of five separate petals. 

This division, in the Key, subdivides into, “A. Stamens more than 10,” and 
“B. Stamens 10 or fewer” (p. 107). Our plant has many stamens, and so falls 
under the head A. 

This head subdivides into three (marked 1, 2, 3), by differences as to where and 
how the stamens are borne. Pull off the calyx and the corolla, or split a flower 
through the middle lengthwise (as in Fig. 238), and you will plainly see that the 
stamens stand on the receptacle, under the pistils, unconnected either with the calyx 
or the corolla. So the plant falls under the head 1. 

Under this is an analysis of some of the characters (i. e. distinguishing marks) of 
the fifteen or sixteen families which belong here. The lines that are set in are 
subdivisions under the longer line above them. The lines which rank directly un¬ 
der one another (and begin with the same or a corresponding word) make alter¬ 
natives, among which you are to choose that with which your plant agrees. In 
this instance the lines of the first rank here begin with the word “Pistils” or 
“Pistil,” and there are five of them. Try the first: “Pistils more than one, 
entirely separate from each other.” That is the case with our plant. Under this 
line, in the next rank, is a triplet, or a choice between three. Our plant is an “ herb, 
with perfect flowers,” and so falls under the first line. Under this is a couple 
of equivalent lines, relating to the leaves. Our plant agrees not with the second, 
but with the first of these; and that line ends with the English name of the 
family we are seeking for, viz. the Crowfoot Family, and refers to page 112, 
where this family is described. 


102 


HOW PLANTS ARE CLASSIFIED AND STUDIED. 


Turn now to the account of this family, and read over the descriptive marks 
given, to see if you have been led to a right conclusion. The description agrees, 
as far as it goes. Knowing the family, you now ask,— 

To what genus of this family does the plant belong? The genus gives the 
principal name of the plant; so this is the same as asking, What is the plant’s 
name ? Now, in every family which has several genera or kinds under it, we have 
a key to the genera, like that which we have just used under the class to find out 
the family. Try the key, then, under this family, to find out the genus. 

This key begins with a pair of lines, viz. “ Climbing plants,” &c., and “ Not 
climbing,” &c. Our plant agrees with the latter. Under this, in the next rank, 
is a pair of lines, beginning with “ Pistils ” (the second line of the pair is the sixth 
on p. 113). You perceive that our plant falls under the first. Under this is the 
line beginning “ Petals none.” Our flower has petals; so pass on to the other one 
of the pair, which is the fifth line on p. 113. This reads “Petals present as well 
as sepals, the latter falling off early ” (which agrees); and leads to the name of 
the genus, i. e. “ ( Ranunculus ) Crowfoot.” 

The first name, in parentheses and in Italic type, is the scientific or Latin name 
of the genus; the other, in small capitals, is the popular English name of the genus. 
When we have only one species to the genus, we do not in this book proceed 
farther. But there are many Crowfoots, so you next inquire, — 

What is the species ? Look on, till you come to the name of the genus in dark 
letters, on p. 114. Here a few more marks of the Crowfoot genus are given; and 
then the marks of ten common species of Crowfoot follow, under several heads. We 
are supposed to have in our hands one of the two large yellow-flowered species, com¬ 
monly called Buttercups. Compare the specimens with the divisions marked by 
stars. It cannot belong to that with one star, for the petals are not white; it does 
belong to that with two stars, for the petals are yellow, and bear a little scale on 
the inside just above the bottom. Under this are two divisions, marked with dag¬ 
gers. Not growing under Water, our plant belongs to that marked -j-. Under 
this are two further divisions, marked ++ and ++ ++ : our plant, having the” “ petals 
much longer than the calyx,” belongs to the second of these. 

Under this head are four species. The English name is given at the beginning 
of the line, in small capital letters ; a short description follows, and the scientific or 
Latin name is appended, in Italic letters, at the end. Here the R. of course stands 
for Ranunculus. A comparison with the description will show which species it is 


HOW TO USE THE POPULAR FLORA. 


103 


that we happen to have. If a field plant flowering in May, and with a bulbous 
base of the stem just underground, it is the Bulbous Crowfoot or Buttercup, 
or in Latin, i?. bulbosus. If the taller species, without a bulb, and flowering in 
summer (which is the most common kind throughout the country), it is Tall 
Crowfoot or Buttercup, or R. acris. Having in this way made out one 
Crowfoot, you will be sure to know any other one as soon as you see it, and will 
only have to find out the species, comparing your specimen with the descriptions, 
on p. 114. 

324. Suppose, for the next example, you have specimens, with flowers and young 
fruit, of a common plant in wet grounds in spring, here called Cowslip, though this 
is not its correct English name. With specimens in hand, turn to p. 105. 

To which class does it belong ? Its netted-veined leaves (and the structure of 
the stem, as seen in a slice under a good magnifying-glass) plainly refer it to Class I. 
You next ask, — 

To which subclass ? The pistils and pods plainly refer it to Subclass I. 

To which division ? At first view you may think it has a corolla ; but there is 
no calyx outside of these yellow leaves of the flower, even in the bud. So you will 
conclude that these leaves are the calyx, notwithstanding their rich color and petal¬ 
like appearance ; and you will turn to the Apetalous division, on p. 110. 

Continue the analysis under that division. The flowers are separate, and “ not 
in catkins ”; so it falls under A. The seeds are numerous in each ovary or pod; 
so it falls under No. 1. The “calyx is free from the ovary,” according to the 
second of the first pair of lines. So you have only to choose between the three 
lines of the triplet under this, beginning with “ Pod.” As the pistils and pods are 
one-celled and simple, we are brought to the name f Crowfoot Family, p. 112. 
The mark f denotes that you have in this case an apetalous plant belonging to 
a family in which the flowers generally have petals. You turn to this family, p. 
112, and proceed as before. You are led along the same trac, 1 ;, until you reach the 
line “ Pistils many or several, becoming akenes in fruit.” Your flowers have a 
number of pistils, but these contain numerous seeds, and make pods in fruit, as in 
Fig. 240. So you pass on to the other line of the couplet, which reads, “ Pistils 
more than one-seeded, becoming pods ”; which agrees with the plant in hand. The 
first line in the next rank reads: “ Sepals petal-like, not falling when the flower 
first opens ” (so it is in your plant); and, of the four lines of the next rank, you can 
take only the first: “ (Sepals) golden-yellow: petals none: leaves rounded, not 


104 


HOW PLANTS ARE CLASSIFIED AND STUDIED. 


cut.” This brings you to the name of the genus, — in Latin or scientific form, 
Caltha ; in English, Marsh-Marigold. Being the only species, we need go no 
farther with it. 

325. On reflection and comparison, you will perceive the family likeness between 
the Marsh-Marigold and the Crowfoot, different as they are in some particulars; 
and between these and the Globe-flower, the Gold-thread, the Anemony, and even 
the Larkspur and Aconite, when you have studied these plants. But the family 
likeness is not quite so strong at first view in this family as it is in most others. 

326. Another example we will take from the plant figured on p. 5 and the fol¬ 
lowing pages (Fig. 4-19), a very common ornamental twiner about houses, flow¬ 
ering all through the summer. Begin, as before, on p. 105. You perceive at once 
that the plant belongs to Class L-; for it has netted-veined leaves, the parts of the 
flower are in fives, and the embryo (which is easily extracted from the fresh seed, 
Fig. 16-19) has a pair of seed-leaves. There is a regular pistil, and the seeds in 
a pod; so the plant belongs to Subclass I. There is both calyx and corolla, the latter 
of one piece ; so the plant belongs to the Monopetalous division, p. 109. The corolla 
is borne on the receptacle below the ovary; so you pass to the head B. The sta¬ 
mens are just as many as the lobes, or rather here the plaits, of the corolla; so you 
pass No. 1, and take No. 2. The stamens stand before the plaits, so that they would 
be alternate with the divisions of the corolla, if it were not that the five petals it 
consists of are united to the very top; so you take the second of the two lines com¬ 
mencing with the word “ Stamens.” These are “ inserted on the corolla,” and are 
entirely separate and “ free from the stigma ”; so you take the fourth line of those 
in the next rank. There is a style (p. 110) ; so the plant falls under the second of 
the two lines of the next rank. The ovary and pod have 3 cells; so it falls under 
the third of the lines beginning with the word “ Ovary.” The stamens are 5, and 
the pod few-seeded (2 seeds in each cell) ; so it falls under the third of the lines 
beginning with “ Stamens.” The plant twines, and the seeds are large; so you are 
brought to the name of the family, the Convolvulus Family, and are referred to 
p. 3 84. Read over the marks of the family, and then search for the gerlus in the 
key or arrangement; and you will find that the name of the genus is, in scientific 
language, Ipomcea , in popular English, Morning-Glory. 

327. One more example, to show how plants are to be studied by the Flora, will 
be sufficient. Take the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 3 on p. 1), which in this country 
adorns almost every flower-garden. 


HOW TO USE THE POPULAR FLORA. 


104 1 


328. With plants in hand, turn to p. 105, and compare with the distinguishing 
marks of Class I. A slice across the stem shows no ring of wood around a pith. 
The leaves are not netted-veined. The parts of the flower are not in fives or fours, 
but in sixes, that is, twice threes. So the plant does not agree with Class I. in 
any respect. Turn therefore to Class II., on p. 203. Examining slices of the stem 
with a magnifying-glass, you may find threads of wood interspersed in the cellular 
part or pith. The leaves are parallel-veined (Fig. 502, 503). The flowers have 
their parts in threes or twice threes; i. e. the cup of the blossom has six lobes, 
and there are six stamens; and, although there is only one pistil, the stigma is 
three-lobed and the ovary has three cells, showing that it is composed of three 
pistils grown into one. So, without looking for the embryo in a ripe seed, which 
is not often to be had, you are sure the plant belongs to Class II. End ogens or 
Monocotyledons. 

329. To find out the family or order the plant belongs to, try the Key. There 
are three divisions of the class. First, the Spctdiceous, which has the flowers ses¬ 
sile on a spadix or fleshy axis. Not so with the plant in hand, which has drooping 
blossoms in a slender raceme. Pass on, therefore, to the second or Petaloideous 
division. In this the flowers are not on a spadix, nor enclosed in chaffy bracts or 
glumes, and they have a calyx and corolla, or a perianth colored like a corolla. 
Our plant belongs to this division. The first line under it reads: “ Perianth free from 
the ovary ”; this is the case in our plant. Proceed to the next rank : “ Of 3 green 
or greenish sepals and 3 distinct and colored petals.” Not so in our plant; so we 
pass to the corresponding line: “ Of 6 petal-like leaves in two ranks, or 6-lobed and 
all colored alike.” Here our plant belongs. Proceed to the two lines under this, 
beginning with the word “ Stamens.” Our flowers have six stamens; so we take the 
second line of the pair. Pass to the two lines of the next rank, beginning with 
“Anthers.” These in our plant are turned inwards: so we take the second line of 
the pair, and are led to the Lily Family, p. 209. Turn to that page: read over the 
marks of the family, and go on to ascertain the genus. Having few seeds or ovules 
in the ovary, small flowers, and running rootstocks, we find our plant to agree with 
the first line of the key to the genera of the Lily Family. The simple and naked 
scape or flower-stalk from the ground, &c. accords with the third line of the next 
rank; and the flowers in a raceme answer to the first of the two lines under that. 
And this brings us to the name of the genus, viz. in Latin form, Convallaria; in 
English, Lily of the Valley, — the only species of the genus. 


104 2 HOW PLANTS ARE CLASSIFIED AND STUDIED. 

330. Signs and Abbreviations used in the Popular Flora. These are very few and 
easily understood. 

The signs for degrees (°), minutes ('), and seconds (") are used for size or height; 
the first for feet, the second for inches, and the third for lines or twelfths of an inch. 

Accordingly 1° or 2° means one or two feet long or high, as the case may be. 

And 1' or 2‘ means one or two inches long or high. 

And 1" or 2" means one or two lines or twelfths of an inch long. 

An asterisk or star before the name of a genus — as * Fennel-flower and 
* Peony on p. 113, or * Radish, * Turnip, * Candytuft, &c. on p. 125 — denotes 
that there are no wild species of that genus in this country, but they are to be met 
with only as cultivated plants. 

§ This mark stands for section of a genus, or a subgenus, i. e. a section almost 
distinct enough for a genus. See under Magnolia, p. 117 ; also p. 147, where 
Pyrus , § Sorbus, and Pyrus , § Malus, &c. denote that Sorbus and Malus are only 
sections or subgenera of the genus Pyrus. 

To save room, the name of the genus generally is not printed in full under each 
species. So, under Virgin’s Bower, p. 113, the first species, Wild Virgin’s 
Bower, is given in full. In the second, “ Sweet V.” stands for Sweet Virgin’s 
Bower. Also, as to the scientific name, “ C. Flammula ” stands for Clematis Flam - 
mula, — and so elsewhere. 

N., S., E., and W., which are occasionally added after the description of a 
species, stand for North, South, East, and West, and indicate the part of the coun¬ 
try where the plant naturally grows. For example, the Long-fruited Anemony, 
p. 114, is found North and West (N. and W.), &c. When there is no such refer¬ 
ence, the species may be found in almost any part of the Northern United States. 

El. is an abbreviation for flowering, or sometimes for flower. P. 115, line 1, 
&c. “ FI. spring,” means flowering in spring, “ FI. summer,” line 8, means flowering 
in summer. Cult, is an abbreviation for cultivated. 

Accents. In the Latin or scientific names, the syllable upon which the accent 
falls is marked with a' or \ When the accented vowel has a long sound, it is 
marked v ; as Anemone , p. 115, Aconitum, p. 116. When the vowel has the short 
sound, it is marked '; as Clematis and Hepcitica, p. 115. 

All Latin or Latinized names, when of only two syllables, take the accent on 
the first syllable, and therefore do not need to be marked. 


fart Sitmili. 


POPULAR FLORA, 


A CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF 

THE COMMON PLANTS OP THE COUNTRY, 

BOTH WILD AND CULTIVATED, UNDER THEIR 
NATURAL ORDERS. 


A Flora is a botanical account of the plants of a country or district, with the 
orders or families systematically arranged under the classes, the genera under the 
orders, and the species (when there are more than one) under the genus they be¬ 
long to, — along with the characters of each class, order, genus, &c.; that is, an 
enumeration of the principal and surest marks, or some of them, by which they are 
to be distinguished. A full Flora of all the plants which grow in this country, 
including those in common cultivation, would at the least fill a large volume; and 
would be both too expensive and too unwieldy for the young beginner. The 
Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States (including Virginia and Ken¬ 
tucky, and extending west to the Mississippi River) is a volume of over 600 pages, 
or 700, including the Mosses. And this work does not include foreign plants culti¬ 
vated in our fields or gardens, except those that have run wild in some places. 

The Popular Flora, which occupies the rest of this book, is for the use of 
beginners, and is made as brief, simple, and easy as possible. For greater facility 
in the study, it includes only the common wild plants of the country (especially of 
the Northern States), and those ordinarily cultivated in our fields or gardens, for 
V use or ornament. The families or genera which are too difficult for young begin¬ 
ners, such as Grasses, Sedges, the large family of plants with compound flowers 
(the Sunflower Family), and the like, are altogether omitted or only briefly 


104 4 


POPULAR FLORA. 


alluded to. So also are the Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants, as already 
mentioned. To save room, when there is only one species, or only one common 
species, to a genus, we do not proceed any farther with it than to the name of the 
genus, both scientific and popular. 

Under the species the English or popular name is placed foremost, in small capi¬ 
tals ; the scientific or Latin name at the end. The scientific names throughout are 
printed in italic letters. 

Full instructions for using the Flora in studying plants are given in Chapter 
IV. Section IY.; at the close of which, the few abbreviations and signs employed 
are explained. 


Classes and other great Divisions, 


Series I. FLOWERING or PHiENOGAMOUS PLANTS, 
Class I. EXOGENS or DICOTYLEDONS, 


Page 

105 


105 


Subclass I. ANGIOSPERMS, 

POLYPETALOUS DIVISION, 

Monopetalous Division, 
Apetalous Division, 


106-160 

161-189 

190-200 


106 


Subclass II. GYMNOSPERMS, 


201 


Class II. ENDOGENS or MONOCOTYLEDONS, 


203 


Spadiceous Division, 
Petaloideous Division, 
Glumaceous Division, 


205 - 206 
206-215 
215-216 


Series II. FLOWERLESS or CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS,* 


216 


Class III. ACROGENS, 

Class IY. ANOPHYTES, 
Class Y. THALLOPHYTES, 


216 

216 

216 



POPULAR FLORA. 


SERIES I 


FLOWERING OR PELENOGAMOUS PLANTS. 

Plants which produce real Flowers (or Stamens and Pistils) and Seeds.— 
See Part I. Paragr. 164, 166. 

CLASS I. —EXOGENS OR DICOTYLEDONS. 

Stem composed of pith in the centre, a separate bark on the surface, and the 
wood between the two, of as many rings or 
layers as the stem is years old. 

Leaves netted-veined, that is, with some of 
the veins or 
veinlets run¬ 
ning together 
so as to form 

, « 230 231 

meSUeS 01 Exogenous stern of the first year. 

net-work or reticulations. 

Flowers with their parts most commonly in fives 
or fours, very seldom in threes. 

Embryo dicotyledonous, i. e. of a pair of seed- 






234 

234, 235. Morning-Glory ; 


236. Cherry. 


232. Netted-veined leaves of Maple. Embryos of, 233. Sugar-Maple ; 

leaves, or in the Pines and the like often polycotyledonous, that is, of more than 
one pair. — The class may be told by the stems and leaves without examining the 



























106 


POPULAR FLORA. 


seeds; but embryos are represented in the figures, to show the student what is 
meant. — For the other class, see p. 203. 

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OR ORDERS OF CLASS I. 

Subclass I. — ANGIOSPERMS. 

With a regular pistil, and a seed-vessel in which the seeds are formed. See Paragr. 219, 311. 

I. Polypetalous Division. Calyx and corolla both present; the petals entirely separate. 

A. Stamens more than 10. 

1. Stamens on the receptacle , unconnected either with the calyx , corolla , or ovary. 

Pistils more than one, entirely separate from each other. 

Herbs, with perfect flowers. Pa ? e 

Leaves not shield-shaped, generally cut, toothed, or compound, Crowfoot Family, 112 
Leaves shield-shaped, fixed by their middle, Water-shield, 121 

Woody vines, with dioecious flowers, shield-shaped leaves fixed near the edge, Moonseed F. 118 
Small trees with perfect flowers, 6 petals, and entire leaves, Custard-Apple F. 118 

Pistils many, grown together one above or over another on a long receptacle, Magnolia F. 117 

Pistils several, sunk in the flat top of a broad receptacle, Nelumbo, 121 

Pistils 3 to 6, the ovaries partly grown together in a circle, making 

A bladdery pod of several cells, Fennel-flower in Crowfoot F. 112 

A several-horned one-celled pod, Mignonette F. 125 

Pistil only one, at least having only one ovary; and that 

Simple and one-celled, only one placenta or seed-bearing part. 

Petals 6 to 9, large. Leaves 1 or 2, many-lobed, May-Apple in Barberry F. 119 

Petals 4 and irregular, or else very small, Crowfoot F. 112 

Compound, with'many seeds on a placenta from the bottom of the cell, Purslane F. 130 

Compound, if one-celled, then with two or more seed-bearing lines on the walls. 

Calyx falling when the flower opens; sepals fewer than the petals, Poppy F. 122 

Calyx falling after blossoming. Style 1: ovary several-celled. 

The 6 sepals edge to edge in the bud. Fruit dry, 1-seeded, Linden F. 133 

The sepals overlapping in the bud. Fruit many-celled, Orange F. 134 

Calyx remaining beneath the fruit. 

Leaves with transparent or dark colored dots, all opposite, St. John’s-wort F. 128 

Leaves not dotted. Ovary and pod one-celled, Cistus F. 127 

Leaves not dotted. Ovary several-celled. Aquatic or bog plants. 

Leaves pitcher-shaped. Style umbrella-like, Sidesaddle-Flower F. 121 

Leaves rounded and heart-shaped. Style none, Water-Lily F. 120 

2. Stamens connected with the bottom of the petals, and these borne on the receptacle. 

Filaments united in a pretty long tube or column: anthers kidney-shaped, one-celled, Mallow F. 131 
Filaments united only with the base of the petals: anthers oblong, two-celled, Camellia. F. 132 


KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF CLASS I. 


107 


3* Stamens borne on the calyx , or tohere the calyx (when coherent) separates from the ovary. 

Petals many, in several rows. 

Shrubs with opposite simple leaves and dingy-purple flowers, Carolina-Allspice F. 152 

Leafless fleshy plants, of singular shapes, Cactus F. 153 

Water-plants, with the large flowers and leaves floating on the surface, Water-Lily F. 120 
Petals 4 or 5, rarely 6. 

Leaves with stipules, alternate, Rose F. 146 

Leaves without stipules. Pods many-seeded. 

Style and stigma one. Pod surrounded by the free calyx, Lythrum F. 152 

Styles or stigmas 3 to 8. Calyx coherent below with the ovary. 

Shrubs: leaves opposite. Pod with several cells. PhiladelphUs in Saxifrage F. 157 
Herbs: leaves fleshy. Pod one-celled, opening by a lid, Purslane F. 130 


B. Stamens 10 or fewer. 

1. Corolla irregular. (Pistil one.) 

Leaves opposite, palmately compound. Calyx 5-toothed. Shrubs or trees, Horsechestnut F. 139 
Leaves alternate, with stipules. 

Filaments often united, but not the anthers. Two lower petals approaching or joined. 

Pod simple, with only one row of seeds, Pulse F. 141 

Filaments short: anthers 5, united. Lower petal with a sac or spur at the base. Pod 

with 3 rows of seeds on the walls, Violet F. 126 

Leaves alternate, without stipules. Flower generally 1-spurred or 2-spurred. 

Stamens 5, short; their anthers a little united. Pod bursting at the touch, Balsam F. 136 

Stamens 8, separate. Fruit of 3 thick and closed pieces, Indian-Cress F. 136 

Stamens 6, in two sets. Flower closed. Pod one-celled, Fumitory F. 123 


2. Corolla regular , or nearly so. 

Stamens just as many as the petals, and standing one before each of them. 
Pistils more than one, and separate. Petals 6. Flowers dioecious, 

Pistil with one ovary but with five separate styles, 

Pistil and style one (the latter sometimes cleft at the summit). 

Anthers opening by uplifted valves or doors. Petals 6 or 8, 

Anthers not opening by valves, but lengthwise. 

Woody vines. Calyx minute: petals falling very early, 

Shrubs. Calyx larger, its divisions 4 or 5, 

Herbs. Ovary and pod one-celled. 

Sepals 2: petals 5: stigmas 3, 

Sepals as many as the petals: style single: stigma one, 
Stamens as many as the petals and alternate with them, or twice as many, or of 
Calyx with its tube adherent to the surface of the ovary. 

Stamens 3, united with each other more or less. Flowers monoecious, 
Stamens distinct, as many or twice as many as the petals. 

8 


Moonseed F. 118 
Lead wort F. 173 

Barberry F. 119 

Grape-Vine F. 137 
Buckthorn F. 138 

Purslane F. 130 
Primrose F. 173 
some unequal number. 

Gourd F. 154 


108 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Seeds many in a one-celled berry. Shrubs, Currant F. 155 

Seeds many in a 2-celled or 1-celledpod: styles 2, Saxifrage F. 157 

Seeds many: pod 4-celled: style 1: stigmas 4, Evening-Primrose F. 153 

Seeds (1 to 5) one in each cell. Border of the calyx obscure. 

Flowers in cymes or heads. Style and stigma one, Cornel F. 160 

Flowers in umbels. 

Umbels compound: styles 2: fruit dry, Parsley F. 158 

Umbels simple or panicled: styles 3 to 5, rarely 2: fruit a berry, Aralia F. 159 
Calyx free from the ovary, at least from the fruit. 

Leaves punctured with transparent dots, sharp-tasted or aromatic. 

Leaves simple, all opposite and entire, St. John’s-wort F. 128 

Leaves compound, Rue F. 137 

Leaves without transparent dots. 

Pistils more than one. Leaves with stipules, Rose F. 146 

Pistils 4 or 5. Herbs without stipules, Stonecrop F. 156 

Pistils 2, nearly distinct. Stipules none, Saxifrage F. 157 

Pistil one, simple, one-celled: style and stigma one, Pulse F. 141 

Pistil one, compound, either its styles, stigmas, or cells more than one. 

Style one (in Cress F. often short or none), entire, or barely cleft at the top. 


Heath F. 168 


Anthers opening by holes or chinks at the top, ) 

Anthers opening across the top, ) 

Anthers opening lengthwise. 

Herbs: stamens on the persistent calyx, Lythrum F. 152 

Herbs: stamens on the receptacle, 6, two of them shorter, Cress F. 124 
Woody plants. Fruit few-seeded. 

Stamens fewer than the 4 long petals, Fringe-tree, 189 

Stamens as many as the broad petals, Staff-tree F. 139 

Styles or sessile stigmas 2 to 6, or style 2- to 5-cleft. 

Ovary and fruit one-celled, and 

One-seeded. Shrubs, Sumach F. 137 

Six-seeded on 3 projections from the walls, Pinweed, 127 

Several- or many-seeded. Stamens distinct. 

Seeds in the centre of the pod. Leaves all opposite, Pink F. 129 
Seeds on the walls or bottom of the pod, Saxifrage F. 157 

Many-seeded along the walls of a long-stalked berry. 

Stamens monadelphous, Passionflower F. 155 

Ovary with 2 to 5 or more cells. 

Sessile stigmas and stamens 4 to 6, 

Styles 3. Leaves opposite, compound, 

Styles or long stigmas 2. Fruit 2-winged, 

Styles or divisions of the style 5. 

Stamens 5: pod partly or completely 10-celled, 

Stamens 10: pod 5-celled. Leaves compound, 

Stamens 10 (or fewer with anthers): styles united 
with a long beak, splitting from it with the 
5 one-seeded little pods when ripe, Geranium F. 135 


Holly F. 171 
Bladdernut F. 139 
Maple F. 138 


Flax F. 
Wood-Sorrel F. 


134 

135 


KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF CLASS I. 


109 


II. Monopetalous Division. Corolla with the petals more or less united into one piece. (Those 

which rank in other divisions are marked f.) 


A. Corolla on the ovary, i. e. tube of calyx coherent. 


Stamens united by their anthers, and 

Not by their filaments. Flowers in heads, with a calyx-like involucre, 

Also generally by their filaments, more or less. Flowers not in heads. 
Corolla irregular, split down one side. Flowers perfect, 

Corolla regular, succulent vines, with tendrils. Flowers monoecious, 
Stamens separate from each other, and 

Inserted on the corolla. Leaves opposite or whorled. 

Leaves opposite, without stipules. Head of flowers with an involucre, 
Leaves opposite, without stipules. Head, if any, without an involucre. 
Stamens two or three fewer than the 5 lobes of the corolla, 
Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla, or one fewer, 

Here one might expect to find the 
Leaves whorled, without stipules,) 

Leaves opposite, with stipules, ) 

Inserted with, but not on, the regular corolla. 

Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla. Herbs, 

Stamens twice as many as the lobes of the corolla. Woody plants, 


Composite 

F. 

164 

Lobelia 

F. 

167 

f Gourd 

F. 

154 

Teasel 

F. 

164 

Valerian 

F. 

164 

Honeysuckle 

F. 

161 

fMlRABILIS 

F. 

191 

Madder 

F. 

163 

Campanula 

F. 

167 

Huckleberry 

F. 

168 


B. Corolla on the receptacle below the ovary, i.e. Calyx free (except in Brookweed). 


1. Stamens more in number than the lobes of the corolla. 

Leaves compound: pod one-celled. Flowers commonly irregular. 

Stamens 10 or rarely more when the flower is regular, 

Stamens 6 in two sets. Petals 4, united, 

Leaves simple or palmately divided. Stamens many, monadelphous in a tube, 
Leaves simple, undivided. Stamens united only at the bottom, or separate. 
Stamens very many, adhering to the base of the corolla, 

Stamens on the corolla, twice or four times as many as its lobes, 

Stamens separate from the corolla, twice as many as its lobes, 


tPuLSE F. 141 
IFumitory F. 123 
fMALLOW F. 131 

f Camellia F. 134 
Ebony F. 172 
Heath F. 168 


2. Stamens just as many as the lobes of the regular corolla , 5, 4, or rarely 6 or 7. 

Stamens one opposite each division of the corolla. 

Styles 6: calyx a chaff-like cup: petals 6, almost distinct, Leadwort F. 173 

Style 1. (Petals sometimes almost distinct,) Primrose F. 173 

Stamens alternate with the divisions or lobes of the corolla, 5 or rarely 4, 

Inserted on the receptacle, Heath F. 168 

Inserted on the corolla, but connected more or less with the stigma. Juice 
milky. Ovaries and pods 2 to each flower. 

Anthers lightly adhering to the stigma: filaments monadelphous, Milkweed F. 188 

Anthers only surrounding the stigma: filaments distinct, Dogbane F. 187 

Inserted on the corolla, free from the stigma. 


110 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Style none: stigmas 4 to 6: corolla very short, deeply cleft, Holly F. 171 

Style one, rarely 2, sometimes 2-cleft or 3-cleft. 

Ovary deeply 4-lobed, in fruit making 4 akenes. 

Stamens 4. Leaves opposite, aromatic, Sage or Mint F. 178 

Stamens 5. Leaves alternate, not aromatic, Borrage F. 181 

Ovary and pod one-celled: the seeds on the walls. 

Leaves lobed or cut. Style 2-cleft above, Waterleaf F. 182 

Leaves entire and opposite, or alternate, with the 3 leaflets entire, Gentian F. 187 
Ovary and fruit with 2 or more cells. 

Stamens 4, long. Flowers in a close spike, Plantain F. 172 

Stamens 5. Pod or berry many-seeded. 

Flower not quite regular. Style entire, Figwort F. 175 

Flower quite regular: stamens all alike, Nightshade F. 185 

Stamens 5. Pod few-seeded. 

Twining herbs. Seeds large. Convolvulus F. 184 

Erect or spreading herbs. Style 3-cleft at the top, Polemonium F. 183 

3. Stamens 2 or 4, always fewer than the lobes of the corolla or 
Corolla more or less irregular, mostly 2-lipped. 

Ovary 4-lobed, making 4 akenes. Stems square: leaves opposite, aromatic, 

Ovary and fruit 4-celled and 4-seeded. Stamens 4, J 
Ovary one-celled, making one akene. Stamens 4,) 

Ovary and pod one-celled, many-seeded on the walls. No green leaves, 

Ovary and pod 2-celled with many large and winged seeds, ) 

Ovary and fruit irregularly 4- 5-celled, with many large seeds,) 

Ovary and pod 2-celled, with many or few small seeds, 

Corolla regular. Stamens only 2. Woody plants. 

Corolla 4-lobed or 4-parted, 

Corolla 5-lobed, salver-shaped, 


calyx. 

Sage or Mint F. 178 
Vervain F. 177 
Broom-Rape F. 174 
Bignonia F. 174 
Figwort F. 175 

Olive F. 189 
Jessamine F. 188 


III. Apetalous Division. Corolla none: sometimes the calyx also wanting. (Those which are 
merely apetalous forms of the preceding divisions are marked f.) 

A. Flowers not in catkins, or catkin-like heads. 

1. Seeds many in each cell of the ovary or fruit. 

Calyx with its tube coherent to the 6-celled ovary, Bjrthwort F. 190 

Calyx free from the ovary. 

Pod 5-celled, 5-horned, Ditch wort in IStonecrop F. 156 

Pod 3-celled, or one-celled with 3 or more styles, Carpetweed, &c. in fPiNK F. 129 

Pod or berry one-celled and simple, f Crowfoot F. 112 

2. Seeds only one or two in each cell of the ovary or fruit. 

Pistils more than one to the flower, and separate from each other. 

Calyx present and petal-like. Stamens on the receptacle, f Crowfoot F. 112 

Calyx present; the stamens inserted on it. Leaves with stipules, fRosE F. 146 


KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF CLASS I. 


Ill 


POKEWEED F. 191 


Pistil only one, either simple or formed of two or more with their ovaries united. 

Styles 10. Fruit a 10-seeded berry, 

Styles or stigmas 2 or 3. 

Herbs with sheaths for stipules, and entire leaves, 

Herbs with separate stipules, and compound or cleft leaves, 

Herbs without stipules, and 

Without scaly bracts. Flowers small and greenish, 

With scaly bracts around and among the flowers, 

Shrubs or trees, with opposite leaves. Fruit a pair of keys, 

Shrubs or trees, with alternate leaves and deciduous stipules. 

Stamens on the throat of the calyx, alternate with its lobes, 

Stamens on the bottom of the calyx, 

Style one: stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a key. Leaves pinnate, 

Style or sessile stigma one and simple. 

Calyx tubular or cup-shaped, colored like a corolla. 

Stamens 8, on the tube. Shrubs: leaves simple, 

Stamens 4, on the throat. Herbs: leaves compound. 

Stamens 5 or less on the receptacle. Calyx imitating a monopetalous 
funnel-shaped corolla: a cup outside imitating a calyx. 

Herbs with opposite leaves, Mirabilis 

Calyx of 6 petal-like sepals colored like petals: stamens 9 or 12: anthers opening 

by uplifted valves. Aromatic trees and shrubs, Laurel 

Calyx in the sterile flowers of 3 to 6 greenish sepals: stamens the same number. 

Flowers monoecious or dioecious, Nettle 


Buckwheat 

Hemp 

Goosefoot 
Amaranth 
t Maple 

Buckthorn 
, Elm 
A sh in f Olive 


Mezereum 
Burnet in tBosE 


F. 192 
F. 196 

F. 191 
F. 192 
F. 140 

F. 138 
F. 195 
F. 189 


F. 195 
F. 146 


F. 191 
F. 194 
F. 195 


B. Flowers one or both sorts in catkins or catkin-like heads. 

Twining herbs, dioecious : fertile flowers only in a short catkin, Hop in the Hemp F. 196 

Trees or shrubs. 

Sterile flowers only in catkins. Flowers monoecious. 

Leaves pinnate. Ovary and fruit (a kind of stone-fruit, without an involucre), Walnut F. 197 
Leaves simple. Nuts one or more in a cup or involucre, Oak F. 197 

Both kinds of flowers in catkins or close heads. 

Leaves palmately veined or lobed. 

Calyx 4-cleft, in the fertile flowers becoming berry-like. Mulberry, &c. in Nettle F. 


Calyx none: flowers in round heads, 

Leaves pinnately veined. 

Flowers dioecious, one to each scale. Pod many-seeded, 
Flowers monoecious, the fertile ones 2 or more under each scale, 
Flowers only one under each fertile scale. Fruit one-seeded, 


195 

Plane-tree F. 196 

Willow F. 199 
Birch F. 199 
Sweet-Gale F. 198 


Subclass II. — GYMNOSPERMS. 

Proper pistil none ; the ovules and seeds naked, on the bottom or inner face of an 


open scale, as in Pines, or without any scale at all, as in Yew, 


Pine Family, 201 


116 


POPULAR FLORA. 


7. Azure L. Leaves parted and cut into narrow linear lobes; flowers many in a close raceme, sky- 
blue or white; pods erect. D. azureum. 

Aconite* (Monkshood, Wolfsbane.) Aconitum. 

Sepals 5, petal-like, dissimilar, the upper one largest and forming a hood or helmet. Petals only 2, and 
those are small and curiously shaped bodies, with a curved or hammer-shaped little blade on a long 
claw, standing under the hood. Pods as in Larkspur. — Flowers in racemes or panicles, showy, blue, 
or purple, varying to white. Herbage and roots poisonous. (Fig. 254, 255.) 

1. Garden Aconite. Stem erect and rather stout, very leafy; divisions of the leaves parted into 

linear lobes; flowers crowded. A. Napellus. 

2. Wild A. Stem weak and bending, as if to climb; lobes of the leaves lance-ovate; flowers scattered, 

in summer. W. A. uncinatum. 
















POPULAR FLORA. 


117 


2. MAGNOLIA FAMILY. Order MAGNOLIACEiE. 


Trees or shrubs, with aromatic or strong-scented and bitter bark, and alternate simple 
leaves, which are never toothed; large, thin stipules form the covering of the buds, but 
fall off early. Flowers large, single at the ends of the branches; their leaves in threes, 
viz. 3 sepals colored like the petals, and 6 petals in two ranks or 9 in three ranks, their 
margins overlapping in the bud. Stamens very many, on the receptacle, with long anthers 
occupying, as it were, the side of the filament. Pistils many, packed and partly grown 
together one above the other, so as 257 


to make a sort of cone in fruit. — 
We have only two genera. 

1. Stipules flat, not adhering to the 

leafstalk. Petals 6, greenish-or¬ 
ange. Filaments slender. Pistils 
overlying each other and grown to¬ 
gether to make a spindle-shaped 
cone, dry when ripe, and sepa¬ 
rating into a sort of key-fruit. 
Leaves somewhat 3-lobed, and as 
if cut off at the end. One species 
only is known, the 

(Liriodendron Tulijnfera) Tulip-tree. 

2. Stipules making a round and pointed 

bud, adhering to the lower part of 
the leaf-stalk. Petals 6 to 9. Fil¬ 
aments below the anther very short. 
Cone of fruit rose-red and fleshy" 
when ripe, the pistils opening on 
the back, the scarlet fleshy-coated 
seeds hanging by delicate and very 
elastic threads, Magnolia. 



258 256 

256. Small Laurel-Magnolia. 257. A stamen magnified. 253. Its cone of fruit, 
the seeds hanging as they drop. 


Magnolia* Magnolia. 

Our wild species divide into Laurel-Magnolias, Cucumber-trees, and Umbrella-trees. 

§ 1. LAUREL-MAGNOLIAS. Leaves thick, evergreen at the South; leaf-buds silky; flowers rather 
globe-shaped, appearing through the summer, white, very fragrant 

1. Great LaureltMagnolia. Tree with leaves deep-green and shining above, rusty beneath when 

young; flower very large. S. It has stood the winter as far north as Philadelphia. M. grandiflora. 

2. Small Laurel-M. (or White Bay). Shrub or small tree; leaves oblong, whitish beneath; flower 

about 2' broad. Swamps. E. & S. M. glauca. 

§ 2. CUCUMBER-TREES. Leaves thin, scattered along the branches, a little downy beneath, buds 
silky; flowers not sweet-scented, nor showy, nor very large, appearing in spring. 

3. Common Cucumber-M. A tall tree; leaves oval or oblong, pointed; flowers greenish; young fruit 

resembling a very small cucumber. Common W. M. acuminata. 









118 


POPULAR FLORA. 


4. Yellow Cucumber-M. A low tree; leaves ovate ora little heart-shaped; flowers cream-yellow. 

S.; sometimes cultivated at the North. M. cordala. 

§ 3. UMBRELLA-TREES. Leaves thin, large, those on the flowering shoots forming an umbrella-like 
circle underneath the blossom; leaf-buds smooth; flower large and white, not sweet-scented, ap¬ 
pearing in early spring; petals about 4' long, tapering below. 

5. Ear-leaved Umbrella-M. Leaves nearly 1° long, auricled at the base (Fig. 102). S. M. Fraseri. 

6. Common Umbrella-M. Leaves 1° to 2° long, tapering into a short footstalk. M. Umbrella. 

7. There is, besides, the Great-leaved M., with much the largest flowers and leaves of all, the latter 

2° or 3° long, scattered, heart-shaped at the base, and white-downy beneath; flower 8' or 10' broad. 
S. and cult, rarely. It does not belong exactly to either the above divisions. M. macrqphylla. 

8. The Purple Magnolia, from Japan, is a shrub in some gardens and grounds, flowering before the 

leaves are out. M. purpurea. 


3. CUSTARD-APPLE FAMILY. Order ANONACEiE. 

Trees or shrubs, resembling the Magnolia family, but the three petals of each set not 
overlapping each other 
in the bud; the bark and 
foliage not aromatic, but 
unpleasant-tasted; the 
seeds large and bony, 
their albumen variegated 
like a nutmeg, or cut into 
slits. Leaves entire, des¬ 
titute of stipules. Only 
one genus in this coun¬ 
try, and one species com¬ 
mon; the 

1. Common Papaw. A 
small tree, with dingy- 
purple flowers appear¬ 
ing in early spring rath¬ 
er before the leaves ; 
the 3 outer petals much 
larger than the 3 inner 
ones ; fruits eatable 
when ripe, in autumn, 

2' or 3' long. Common 
West and South along 

rivers, in rich soil. 264 260 

A * . , t 260. Branch of Papaw in flower. 261. A stamen. 262. Flower withall but the pistils taken 

Asimina triloba. off the receptacle. 263. Fruits; two of them cut through. 264. A seed cut through to 
show the variegated albumen. 




POPULAR FLORA. 


119 


4. MOONSEED FAMILY. Order MEN! SPERM A CEiE. 

Woody climbers, with alternate leaves and small dioecious flowers (as shown in Fig. 167, 
168) ; the sepals and petals each 4 or 6 and both of the same color, and a few one-seeded 
pistils, becoming small drupes in fruit, with a moon-shaped or kidney-shaped stone. We 
have two genera of one suedes each, the first common at the North, the second at the 
South. 

1. Stamens 12 to 20 : pistils 2 to 4. Flowers white : leaves rounded and angled shield-shaped. Fruit 

blue-black, ( Menispermum ) Moonseed. 

2. Stamens 6, one before each petal. Flowers greenish: leaves heart-shaped. ( Cocculus) Cocculus. 



5. BARBERRY FAMILY. Order BERBERIDACEiE. 

Readily distinguished (with a single exception) by having the sepals and petals in fours, 
sixes, or eights (not in fives), 
and with just the same number 
of stamens as petals, one before 
each petal (on the receptacle), 
the anthers opening by an 
uplifted valve or door on each 
side. Pistil only one. Harm¬ 
less, except the May-Apple (also 
called Mandrake), which has 
rather poisonous roots, although 
the fruit is innocent and eata¬ 
ble. Having only one species 
of each genus, we may ascertain 
them by the following key: — 

265. Shoot ; 266. cluster of leaves and raceme ; 267. enlarged flower 
spread open ; 268. a petal more magnified ; and, 269. a stamen, 
with the anther opening, of the common Barberry. 


Shrubs with yellow bark and wood, and yellow flowers. Stamens and petals 6. 

Leaves appearing simple, in a cluster above a branching thorn, which is 265 

an altered leaf of the year before. Berries red, (Herberts) Barberry. 

Leaves scattered, pinnate, evergreen: no thorns. Berries blue, (Mahonia) * Maiionia. 

Herbs,with perennial roots, all with compound or deeply lobed leaves. 

Flowers yellowish-green, small. Stamens and petals 6. Leaves decompound, from 

the root and also at the top of the stem, ( Caulophyllum) Cohosh. 








120 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Flowers white, rather large: petals larger than the fugacious calyx. 

Stamens and narrow petals 8. The one-flowered scape and the 2-parted leaves 
rising separately from the ground. Fruit a many- 
seeded pod opening by a lid, ( Jeffersonia ) Twinleaf. 

Stamens 12 to 18: petals rounded, 6 to 9. Flowering stems 2-leaved at the top: 

leaves shield-shaped and several-cleft, large, with a 

nodding flower in the fork, ( Podophyllum ) May-Apple. 


6. WATER-LILY FAMILY. Order NYMPHiEACEiE. 



Water-plants with flowers and leaves on long footstalks, rising out of the water or rest¬ 
ing on its surface; the leaves 
either shield-shaped or deeply 
heart-shaped. Petals and sta¬ 
mens generally very many.— 

To the proper Water-Lily fam¬ 
ily may here well enough be 
added the Water-shield and 
the Nelumbo, each of a sin¬ 
gle species. This gives us 
four genera, which are distin¬ 
guished as follows: — 


271 272 


Fruit of Nelumbo. 270. Flower, bud, and leaf of White Water-Lily. 271. Flower with the parte cut 

away, all but two petal-like stamens, one ordinary stamen, and tie compound 
pistil. 272. Slice across the 11-celled pistil. 


1. Leaves and flowers from very thick and long creeping rootstocks. Sepals and the 
many petals and stamens gradually blending into each other, and growing to the 
surface of the many-celled and many-seeded compound pistil. Flower white, sweet- 
scented, (Nymphcea) White Water-Lily. 














POPULAR FLORA. 


121 


2. Leaves and flowers from rootstocks like the last. Sepals 5 or 6, rounded, partly petal¬ 

like and yellow. Within these a mass of small, square-topped bodies looking like 
and not much larger than the stamens, but really answering to petals; and above 
them the real stamens in great numbers, all under the many-celled and flat-topped 
pistil, ( Nuphar ) Yellow Pond-Lilt. 

3. Leaves and small dull-purple flowers from a slender stem rising in the water; the oval 

leaves attached by the middle of the under side (centrally peltate). Sepals and 
petals narrow, each 4, and 12 to 18 stamens, all under the 4 to 16 separate and 
few-seeded pistils, ( Brasenia ) Watershield. 

4. Sepals and petals (alike in many ranks) and stamens many, all falling off early, all un¬ 

der the pistils, which are 12 or more in number and separately embedded in the flat 
upper face of an enlarged top-shaped receptacle. In fruit they are round and eat¬ 
able nuts (Fig. 273). Leaves very large (1° or 2° broad), round, attached by the 
middle underneath, cupped, rising out of the water, as do the great greenish- 
yellow flowers also, on long stalks. Common W. & S. ( Nelumbium ) Nelumbo. 


7. SIDESADDLE-FLOWER FAMILY. Order SARRACENIACEiE. 


Bog-plants with hollow, pitcher-shaped or trumpet-shaped leaves, all from the root, 
making the curious genus 

Sidesaddle-Flower. Sarracenia. 

Sepals 5, colored, persistent; and below the calyx are 3 small 
bractlets. Petals 6, fiddle-shaped, curved inwards. Stamens 
very many, on the receptacle. Style with a broad and 6-angled 
umbrella-shaped top, covering the 5-celted ovary and the stamens. 

Pod many-seeded. Flower single, large, nodding on the summit 
of a long scape. 

1. Purple Sidesaddle-Flower, or Pitcher-Plant. Petals 

deep purple, arched over the pistil ; leaves pitcher-shaped, 
yellowish-green, veined with purple, and with a broad wing 
down the inner side. Common N. & S. 8. purpurea. 

2. Red S. Petals red; leaves long, trumpet-shaped, with a nar¬ 

row side wing. S. 8. rubra. 

3. Spotted S. Petals yellow ; leaves trumpet-shaped, 12' to 

18' long, with a hooded top spotted with white on the back, 
and a narrow side wing. S. 8. variolaris. 

4. Yellow S., or Trumpets. Petals yellow, drooping when 

old; leaves 1° to 3° long, trumpet-shaped, with an upright 
rounded top turned back at the sides, side wing hardly any. 

Very common S. S.Jlava. 




122 


POPULAR FLORA. 


8. POPPY FAMILY. Order PAPA VER ACE AS. 



A 


Herbs with a milk-white, yellow, or reddish juice (colorless in Eschscholtzia), which is 
bitter or acrid and poisonous, alternate leaves, and flowers remarkable for having only 2 

(rarely 3) sepals, which 
fall when the blossom 
opens, but 4 (or in one 
case 8 or 12) petals, 
which fail early. Sta¬ 
mens many, on the re¬ 
ceptacle. Pistil one, 
compound, but almost al¬ 
ways one-celled, many- 
seeded, the seeds borne 
on the walls or on pro¬ 
jections from them (pa¬ 
rietal). Eschscholtzia is 
remarkable for its calyx 
shaped like a pointed 
cap or a candle-extin¬ 
guisher. —In most cases 
we have only one spe¬ 
cies of each genus. 


275. A flower-bud casting its calyx, 
and, 276, a flower of Poppy. 


277 278 

277. Pod of Celandine open¬ 
ing. 278. Frame of the 
same, turned flatwise, and 
seeds still on it. 



280. The cap-shaped 
calyx fallen off. 

281. The pod. 


Petals 4, crumpled or plaited in the bud, which nods before opening (except in the Prickly-Poppy). 

Ovary and pod incompletely several-celled, by plates or placentas projecting from 
the walls and covered with numberless seeds. Stigmas making a flat 
sessile cap. Pod hard, opening by pores under the edge of the cap of 
stigmas, ( Papaver) * Poppy. 

Ovary and pod strictly one-celled, opening by valves, and leaving the placentas as a 
slender frame between them. Flowers yellow, rarely white. 

Pod and leaves prickly. Style none: stigmas 4 or 6, ( Argemone ) Prickly-Poppy. 

Pod bristly. Style present: stigmas 3 or 4, ( Stylophorum) Celandine-Poppy. 

Pod smooth, slender (Fig. 277): stigmas 2, ( Chelidonium) Celandine. 

Ovary and long narrow pod 2-celled by a thick partition in which the seeds are em¬ 
bedded; stigma 2-horned, ( Glaucium) * Horn-Poppy. 

Petals not crumpled in the bud, which does not nod. 

Petals 8 to 12, narrow, white. Pod oblong. Juice orange-red, ( Sanguinciria) Bloodroot. 

Petals 4, broad, yellow. Sepals united into a pointed cap which falls off as a lid (Fig. 

280, 281). Receptacle or end of the flower-stalk expanded and top¬ 
shaped. Stigmas 3 to 7, slender, unequal. Pod many-ribbed. Juice 
watery, colorless, but strong-scented, * Eschscholtzia. 
















POPULAR FLORA. 


123 


9. FUMITORY FAMILY. Order FUMARIACEiE. 

Tender herbs with a colorless juice, compound alternate leaves, and irregular flowers 
with only two small scale-like sepals, a flattened and closed corolla of 4 petals more or less 
grown together, the two outside ones larger with small spreading tips, the two inner small 

and with spoon-shaped tips stick¬ 
ing together face to face over the 
anthers and stigma: stamens on 
the receptacle, 6 in two sets or 
bundles, one before each of the 
larger petals, or all joined in one 
tube below. The middle anther 
of each set is two-celled; the side 
ones only one-celled. Pistil one, 
in the manner of the Poppy fam¬ 
ily. Pod one-celled. Bitterish, 
harmless plants, with singularly 
shaped flowers, some of them 
handsome. We have four gen¬ 
era, two of them of only one 
species each. 




282. Bulb, and, 283, leaf and flowers of Dicentra No. 1. 284. Flower, natural size. 285, 286. Same, taken to pieces. 287. Diagram 
of the f.ower of a Corydal. 283. One of the sets of stamens united. 

Flower heart-shaped, or with a spur on each side at the base. 

Petals all permanently united into a slightly heart-shaped (pale flesh-colored) 
corolla, which dries without falling and encloses the four-seeded 
pod. A delicate vine climbing by the tendril-like divisions of its 
thrice-pinnate leaves, ( Adlinnia ) Smoke-Vine. 

Petals less united, readily separated. Pod several-seeded, ( Dicentra) Dicentra. 

Flower with a projection or spur at the base on one side only. 

Ovary slender, forming a several-seeded pod, ( Corydalis) Corydal. 

Ovary and fruit, round, small, one-seeded, not opening, ( Fumaria) Fumitory. 

9 







124 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Dicentra. Dicentra (wrongly called Dielytra). 

The species are perennials with singular and handsome flowers in racemes, blossoming in spring. 

* Wild species, in rich woods; the decompound and finely cut leaves and naked flower-stalk rising 
separately from the ground, in early spring. Delicate low plants, chiefly found N. & W. 

1. Dutchman’s Breeches D. (Fig. 282-286.) Herbage from a sort of bulb of coarse grains; 

corolla white, tipped with cream-color, with 2 very large spurs. D. CucuUaria. 

2. Squirrel-Corn D. Underground shoots bearing little yellow tuber-like bodies, resembling grains 

of Indian Corn; corolla white and flesh-color, fragrant like Hyacinths. D. Canadensis. 

* * Garden species, leafy-stemmed, 2° or 3° high, with Peony-like leaves. 

3. Showy D. Racemes drooping, one-sided; flowers pink-purple, 1' long. Cultivated. D. spectdbilis. 

Corydal. Corydalis. 

Our two species are leafy-stemmed biennials, glaucous, with twice-pinnate leaves, and linear or 
slender pods. They grow in rocky places and flower in spring and summer. 

1. Golden C. Low and spreading; flowers yellow in simple racemes; pods hanging. C. aiirea. 

2. Pale C. Upright; flowers purplish and yellowish; racemes panicled; pods erect. C. glauca. 


10. CRUCIFEROUS OR CRESS FAMILY. Order CRUCIFER2E. 

Herbs, with alternate leaves, a sharp-tasted watery juice (never poisonous, but often 
very acrid or biting); perfectly distinguished by their cruciferous flowers, ietradynamous 
stamens, and by having the sort of pod called a silique or silicle (240, 

241). The flower is called cruciferous because the 4 petals, with claws 
enclosed in tne 4-sepalled calyx, have their blade spreading so as to form 
the four arms of a cross. As to the stamens, they are 6 in number (on 
the receptacle), two of them always shorter than the other four. The 
pistil makes a pod, like that of the Celandine, &c. in the Poppy family 
(Fig. 277), except that a partition stretches across between 
the two thread-shaped placentas, and divides the cavity into 
two cells. When the pod opens, the two valves fall away, 
leaving the seeds attached to the edges of this frame. The 
whole kernel of the seed is an embryo. It is always bent or 
folded up, in various ways. The flowers of the whole family are 
so much alike, that the genera have to 
be distinguished by their pods and seeds. 

This makes the family too difficult for 
the beginner. But so many plants of 
the family are common in cultivation, 
that we add a tabular key, leading to 
the names of the principal kinds. 

289. Flower of Mustard. 290. Stamens and pistil, more magnified. 291. Pod (silique) of Toothwort. opening. 292. Pod (silicle or Douch) 
of Shepherd’s-Purse. 293. Same, with one valve fallen off. F 














POPULAR FLORA. 


125 


1. Pod ( silique ) generally several times longer than wide. 

Pod not splitting open when ripe, but becoming hard, beak-pointed. Seeds round. 

Flowers pink or purple. Pod thick, fleshy when young, ( Raphams ) ^Radish. 

Flowers yellow, turning whitish or purplish. Pod long, necklace-shaped, 

(Raphanus, § Raphanistrum) Jointed-Ciiarlock. 
Pod splitting, i. e. opening when ripe by two valves, which fall off and leave the partition. 

Pod ending in a beak. Seeds round. Flowers yellow. 

Calyx erect in blossom. Roots, stems, or leaves, &c. be- ) . f *Turnip and 

coming fleshy in cultivation, J ' \ ^Cabbage. 

Calyx open or spreading in blossom, ( Sinapis ) Mustard. 

Pod not beaked, i. e. not ending in a strong-pointed tip. Seeds flat or oblong. 

Calyx unequal, two of the sepals projecting or pouch-shaped at the base. 

Flowers yellow or orange. Pod and seeds flat, ( Cheiranihus) * Wallflower. 

Flowers rose, purple, or white. Pods not flat. 

Stigmas thickened on the back. Seeds flat, ( Matthiola ) *Stock. 

Stigmas close-pressed together. Seeds oblong, ( ffespeiis) ^Rocket. 

Calyx equal, i. e. the sepals all alike or nearly so. 

Pods flat. Flowers white or purple. 

Valves of the pod with a mid-nerve or vein, ( Arabis ) Rock-Cress. 

Valves of the pod without a nerve. 

Stem-leaves alternate or scattered, ( Cardamine) Bitter-Cress. 

Stem-leaves 2 or 3, whorled or clustered. Root fleshy, ( Dentaria ) Toothwort. 
Pods obtusely 4-sided, linear. Flowers yellow, ( Barhar'ea ) Winter-Cress. 

Pods awl-shaped. Flowers pale yellow, ( Sisymbrium) Hedge-Mustard. 

Pods turgid, short-linear or oblong, ( Nasturtium ) Water-Cress. 


2. Pod (silicle or pouch) short , the length not more than two or three times the breadth. 
Pod opening when ripe by 2 valves which fall off and leave the partition. 


( Armoracia ) Horseradish. 
( Camelina) False-Flax. 
( Draba ) Whitlow-Grass. 


(Lunaria ) ^Honesty. 
(Koniga ) *Sweet-Alyssum. 


Pod globose or ovoid, many-seeded, 

Pod pear-shaped, rather flattish, many-seeded. Flowers yellow, 

Pod flat, with a broad partition. Seeds many, 

Pod flat, with a broad partition. Seeds 2 to 4. 

Flowers purple, large. Pod large, stalked above the calyx, 

Flowers white, small. Pod small, 2-seeded, 

Pod flattened contrary to the narrow partition. Flowers white or purple. 

Seeds many; pod triangular-obcordate with a shallow notch, ( Capsella ) Shepherd’s-Purse. 
Seeds only one in each cell. 

Petals all alike. Flowers very small, ( Lepidium ) Peppergrass. 

Petals unlike; the two on the outer side of the flower larger, ( Ib'eris ) ^Candytuft. 
Pod not opening, 1-celled, 1-seeded, wing-like. Flowers yellow, ( Isatis) *Woad. 

Pod not opening, but jointed across the middle, fleshy. Flowers purplish, ( Cakile) Sea-Rocket. 


11. MIGNONETTE FAMILY. Order KESEDACEJE. 

A family consisting of a few European herbs, with small and irregular flowers, which 
deserves notice merely because it contains the 




126 POPULAR FLORA. 

Mignonette. Reseda. 

Sepals 4 to 7, green, not falling off, open in the bud. Petals 4 to 7, unequal, on broad claws, the 
small blade cleft as if cut into several narrow slips. Stamens 10 or more, borne on an enlargement of 
the receptacle, turned to one gide of the blossom. Pod short and broad, one-celled, dividing at the 
top into 3 to 6 horns, opening between the horns long before the seeds are ripe. The seeds are kidney* 
shaped, numerous, and parietal, that is, borne along the walls of the pod. — Herbs, with alternate 
leaves and small dull-looking flowers crowded in a raceme or spike. 

1. Common Mignonette. Low and spreading; leaves some entire, others 3-cleft; sepals and petals 

6 or 7. Cultivated for its very fragrant small flowers. R. odorata. 

2. Dyek’s-Weed. Stem simple, upright, 2° high; leaves all entire, broadly lance-shaped; sepals and 

petals 4. A weed along road-sides in some places; used for dying yellow. R. Luteola. 

12. VIOLET FAMILY. Order VIOLACEiE. 

Herbs with 5 sepals, 5 petals, and 5 stamens borne on the receptacle, the lower petal 
rather different from the rest and enlarged at the bottom into a projecting sac or spur. 
Stamens very short and broad, the anthers a little united by their edges around the pistil. 
Pistil one, with one style. Pod one-celled, with three rows of seeds on its walls. — Leaves 
with stipules. Roots and juice rather acrid. The common plants of the family belong to 
the genus, 

1. Violet. Viola. 

Flower nodding on the summit of the flower-stalk. Style club-shaped; stigma bent over to one 
side. — Flowering in spring, and some species continuing to blossom all summer. 

* Stemless species, i. e. leaves and naked flower-stalks all from rootstocks on or under ground. 

-t- Garden species from Europe spreading by runners or rootstocks above ground. 

1. Sweet or English Violet. Leaves rounded heart-shaped; flowers blue-purple, also a white 

variety, very fragrant. Cultivated, generally double-flowered. V. odorata. 

■+- -t- Wild species, with tufted and fleshy uneven rootstocks. Flowers short-spurred. 

■m. Flowers purple or blue, nearly scentless. 

2. Common Blue V. Flowers pretty large; side-petals bearded; leaves on long upright stalks, heart- 

shaped or kidney-shaped, the sides at the bottom rolled in when young, slightly toothed, or in 
the lobed or Hand-leaf variety cleft or parted in various degrees. Low grounds. V. cucullata. 

3. Hairy V. Leaves short-stalked and flat on the ground; flowers smaller ; otherwise like the last. 

Dry soil, S. & W. V. villosa. 

4. Arrow-leaved V. Early leaves on short and margined footstalks, oblong-heart-shaped, halberd¬ 

shaped, arrow-shaped, lance-oblong or ovate. Varying greatly, hairy or smoothish; side petals or 
all of them bearded; flowers large for the size of the plant. Dry or moist ground. V. sagittata. 
6. Bird’s-foot V. Leaves cut into fine linear lobes; petals lilac-purple, large, beardless. Moist 
sandy soil. V. peddta. 

++ ++ Flowers small, white, faintly sweet-scented, the lower petal streaked. Small, in damp soil. 

6. Bland V. Leaves rounded heart-shaped or kidney-shaped; petals without any beard. V. blanda. 

7. Primrose-leaved V. Leaves oblong or ovate; side-petals generally bearded. V. primulcefblia. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


127 


8. Lance-leaved Violet. Leaves lance-shaped, erect, smooth; petals not bearded. V. lanceolata. 

•w- ++ ++ Flowers light yellow, small. 

9. Round-leaved V. Leaves round ovate and heart-shaped, spreading flat on the ground; side- 

petals bearded and brown-streaked inside. Cold woods, N. V. rotundifolia. 

* * Leafy-stemmed species. 

-t— Wild species, perennial, with heart-shaped leaves, blossoming nearly all summer. 

10. Long-spurred V. Spur £' long, considerably longer than the pale bluish corolla. V. rostrata. 

11. Muhlenberg’s V. Low, spreading by runners; spur stout, not more than half the length of 

the pale violet corolla. Wet woods. V. Muhlenbergii. 

12. Pale V. Spur much shorter than the cream-colored corolla; lower petal streaked. V. striata. 

13. Canada V. Tall; petals white above, violet-tinged beneath; spur very short. V. Canadensis. 

14. Downy V. Tall, leafless below, downy; corolla yellow, spur very short. V.jpubescens. 

1 - h— Cultivated or run wild; root annual or biennial. 

15. Heart’s-ease or Pansy V. Low; upper leaves oval, the lower heart-shaped; stipules large 

and leaf-like, pinnatifid; corolla yellow-whitish, violet-blue, and purple, varying or mixed, large 
and showy in the cultivated Pansy, becoming small when run wild. V. tricolor. 

13. CISTUS FAMILY. Order CISTACE^E. 

This small family consists of low shrubby plants or perennial herbs, in Europe with a 

showy corolla which opens only once, in sunshine, 
the petals falling off at sunset. Here it contains 
only a few less handsome, or homely, weed-like 
plants. They may be known by the followiug 
marks. — Leaves some of them alternate. Calyx 
remaining after blossoming, of 5 sepals, three of 
them large and two smaller, often very small, the 
latter entirely outside in the bud and looking like 
bracts. Petals 5 or 3, all alike, overlapping each 
other in the bud, each with one edge covering the 
one before it, but covered by that behind it. Sta¬ 
mens from 3 to 20 or more, all separate, borne on 
the receptacle. Pistil one, making a one-celled 
pod, with the seeds borne on three lines down the 
walls, or on projections from them, that is, with 
3 parietal placentas. 

Petals 5, yellow, falling after the flower has opened for one day only. 

Style none. Petals crumpled in the bud, ( Helidnthemum ) Frostweed. 

Style slender. Little shrubs with minute leaves on sandy shores, ( Hudsonia) Hudsonia. 

Petals 3, purplish, persistent. Flowers very small. ( L&chea ) Pinweed. 



294 295 

294. Flower, &c. of Frostweed. 295. Its calyx and 
pistil. 296. its ovary cut across and magnified. 



128 


POPULAR FLORA. 


14. ST. JOHN’S-WORT FAMILY. Order HYPERICACEAC. 

Herbs or low shrubs, with the leaves all opposite and dotted, as if punctured, with trans¬ 
parent or dark-colored dots, one or both; the juice generally acrid. Flowers with 4 or 5 
persistent sepals, as many petals, and more numerous, commonly a great*number of sta¬ 
mens, and in 3 or 5 clusters, borne on the receptacle. Styles 2 to 5, commonly separate, or 
sometimes all united into one. Ovary only one, in fruit a pod, either one-celled with 2 to 

5 (commonly 3) parietal pla¬ 
centas, or with as many cells 
and the placentas in the inner 
angle of each cell (Fig. 189, 
190), when ripe splitting through 
the partitions (Fig. 212). 





297 299 300 301 

297. Flowers, &c. of St. JohnVwort No. 4. 298. Pistil of 3 united. 299. Pod cut across. 300. Plan of the flower of Marsh St. 
Johu’s-wort, in a cross-section of the bud. 301. One of the clusters of three stamens. 


Sepals 5, all nearly alike in size and shape. 

Petals 5, flesh-colored, oblong, equal-sided, stamens about 9, in three sets, and a thick 

gland between each set, ( Elod'ea) Marsh St. John’s-wort. 

Petals 5, yellow, unequal-sided. Stamens generally many, ( Hypericum ) St. John’s-wort. 

Sepals 4, in two pairs, one pair large, the other small; petals 4, ( A'scyrum ) St. Peter’s-wort. 


St. John’s-wort. Hypericum. 

* Stamens very many, in 5 sets. Styles 5, rarely 6 or 7. 

1. Great St. John’s-wort. Perennial herb, with stems branched, 3° to 5° high; leaves closely 

sessile, oblong; petals 1' long, narrow. N. & W. H.pyramidatum. 

* * Stamens very many. Styles 3 or splitting into 3. Perennials or shrubs. 

2. Shrubby S. Shrub 1° to 4° high, very bushy; branchlets 2-edged; leaves lance-oblong; styles 

at first all united into one (Fig. 190), when old splitting into three. W. & S. H.prolifcum. 

3. Naked-flowered S. Shrubby at the base, 1° to 4° high; branches sharply 4-angled; leaves 

oblong; cyme stalked and naked. S. & W. H. nudifloi'um. 

4. Common S. Herb 1° or 2° high, bushy-branched; stem somewhat 2-edged; leaves narrow-oblong, 

with transparent dots; sepals lance-shaped; petals bright yellow. A weed in pastures, &c. 

H. perforatum. 








POPULAR FLORA. 


129 


5. Corymbed S. Herb 1° to 2° high, with a terete stem, little branched; leaves oblong, dotted with 

black as well as with transparent dots, and so generally are the pale yellow petals; sepals oblong. 
Low grounds. Ek corymbosum. 

* * * Stamens few, 5 to 15. Styles 3, short. Pod one-celled. Slender annuals, growing in wet 
or sandy places, 4' to 15' high: flowers very small. 

6. Small S. Stem weak, with spreading branches, leafy to the top; leaves ovate or oblong, partly 

clasping, 5-ribbed. II. mutilum. 

7. Canada S. Branches erect, leaves lance-shaped or linear; cymes leafless. B. Canctdense. 

8. Pine-weed S. Bushy-branched, the branches wiry and very slender; the leaves very minute, 

awl-shaped, close-pressed to the branches; flowers minute, sessile along the branches. E. Sarbthra. 


15. PINK FAMILY. Order CARYOPHYLLACEiE. 


Herbs with opposite and entire leaves, which are not dotted, the stems swollen at the 
joints. Flowers regular, their parts in fives, sometimes in fours. Stamens never more 
than twice as many as the petals or sepals, and often fewer, on the receptacle or the calyx. 
Styles or stigmas generally separate, 2 to 5. Fruit a pod, which is generally one-celled, 
with the seeds from the bottom or on a central column. These are kidney-shaped, and 
have the embryo on the outside of the albumen, generally coiled around it. — Bland 



302. Piece of Side-flowering Sandwort. 303. Flower magnified. 304. A seed divided, showing the embryo coiled around the outside of 
the albumen. 305. Pistil of Sand-Spurrey cut through lengthwise and magnified. 303. Lower part of the ovary of the same, cut across. 
307. Flower of a Catchfly cut through lengthwise. 308. A separate petal. 













130 


POPULAR FLORA. 


herbs: some are insignificant weeds; others have handsome flowers, and are cultivated for 
ornament. They form two main sub-families, one containing the Pinks, the other the Chick- 
weeds. For lack of room, only the principal genera can be given here, without the species, 
which are numerous. 


I. PINK Subfamily. Sepals united into a tube or cup. Petals with long claws, which are en¬ 
closed in the tube of the calyx. The petals and the 10 stamens are generally raised more or less on a 


stalk within the calyx. Pod many-seeded, opening at the top. 
Calyx furnished with two or more scaly bractlets at the base. 
Calyx naked, i. e. without any bractlets at the base. 

Styles 2. Calyx cylindrical and even, 

Styles 2. Calyx oblong and strongly 5-angled, 

Styles 3. Calyx 5-toothed, 

Styles 5. 

Calyx with short teeth, which are not leaf-like, 

Calyx with leafy lobes, which are longer than the petals, 


Flowers mostly rather large and showy. 
Styles 2, ( Dianthus ) * Pink. 


(Saponaria ) Soapwokt. 
(Vaccaria ) Cowherd. 
(Silene ) Catch fly. 

{Lychnis) * Lychnis. 
(Agrostemma ) Cockle. 

II. CHICK WEED Subfamily. Sepals separate or nearly so. Petals without claws, spreading, 
sometimes wanting. Small or low herbs; many are weeds. Flowers small, mostly white,-except in 
Sand-Spurrey. 

Pod 3-celled, many-seeded. Petals none. Prostrate annual weed, ( MoUiigo ) Carpetweed. 

Pod one-celled, with several or many seeds. Styles 3 to 5. 

Stipules or little scales between the leaves none. 

Petals 2-cleft or parted, or notched at the end. 

Styles and petals 5. Pod opening by 10 teeth. ( Cerastium) Mouse-ear Chickweed. 

Styles 3 or 4. Pod splitting into valves, ( Stellaria ) Chickweed. 

Petals entire, not notched nor cleft. 

Styles 3, fewer than the petals, (Arenarici) Sandwort. 

Styles 5 or 4, as many as the petals, ( Sag'ina ) Pearlwort. 

Stipules in the form of scales between the bases of the leaves. 

Styles 3. Leaves not whorled. Petals purple, ( Spergularia ) Sand-Spurrey. 

Styles 5. Leaves in whorls, narrow. Petals white, (Spergula ) Spurrey. 


16. PURSLANE FAMILY. Order PORTULACACEJE. 

More or less fleshy herbs, with entire leaves, and flowers which open only in sunshine. 
Sepals fewer than the petals (i. e. sepals 2, petals 5), with a stamen before each one, or 
else with many stamens. Pod one-celled, with the seeds, like those of the Pink family, on 
stalks rising from the base of the cell. Harmless and tasteless herbs; the Spring-Beauty 
has handsome flowers in the spring in woods. The common Purslane is a well-known gar¬ 
den weed and pot-herb, and the Great-flowered Purslane, with its cylindrical fleshy leaves 
and large red or scarlet flowers, is a common ornamental annual in cultivation. 

Calyx 2-cleft, the tube united with the lower part of the ovary. Petals opening only 
once. Stamens 7 to 20. Pod many-seeded, opening round the middle, the top 
falling off as a lid. Annuals. ( Portulaca ) Purslane. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


131 


Calyx 2-leaved, free from the ovary, which makes a few-seeded pod, splitting into 3 valves. 

Stamens 5, one before each petal. Leaves 2 and opposite in our species, on a 
stem which comes from a small tuber. Flowers rose-color, in a raceme, open¬ 
ing for several days. ( Claytonia) Spring-Beauty. 


» 



310 311 312 313 314 315 316 

309. Half of a flower of the common Purslane, divided lengthwise and magnified. 310. Pod of the same, opening by a lid. 
311. Claytonia or Spring-Beauty. 312 Its 2-cleft calyx and pod. 313. Ripe pod cut across, and splitting into three 
valves. 314. Seed, more magnified. 315. S»me, cut through, to show the coiled embryo. 316. Embryo taken out. 


17. MALLOW FAMILY. Order MALVACEiE. 

Distinguished by the numerous monadelplious stamens (i. e. united by their filaments into 
a tube or column ), with kidney-shaped one-celled anthers, and the five sepals or lobes of the 
calyx applied edge to edge without overlapping (i. e. valvate ) in the bud, and persistent. 
Leaves almost always palmately-veined, alternate, with stipules. Petals united at the bot¬ 
tom with the tube of stamens. There is often a sort of outer calyx, below the true one, 
called an involucel. All innocent plants, full of mucilage (it is extracted from the root of 
Marsh-Mallow), and with a very tough fibrous inner bark. Flowers often handsome. 

Anthers all at the top of the column of united filaments (Fig. 317). 

Involucel or outer calyx present. Cells of the fruit many in a ring, separating whole 
when ripe, one-seeded. 

Involucel 9-parted. Separated little pods marginless. Plant soft-downy: root pe¬ 
rennial, (Altlwba) Marsh-Mallow. 

Involucel about 6-parted. Separated pods with membranaceous margins. Plants 

tall, roughish: root biennial. Flowers large, (Althcea, § A'lcea) * Hollyhock. 

Involucel 3-6-cleft. A flat plate covering the circle of pods, ( Lavatera ) * Lavatera. 

Involucel 3-leaved. Circle of pods naked, around a narrow axis, ( Malva ) Mallow. 



132 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Involucel or outer calyx none. 

Flowers dioecious, small, white. Pods or cells one-seeded, ( Napcea ) Glade-Mallow. 

Flowers perfect. Cells of the pod 5 to 15. 

Seed only one in each cell. Flowers yellow or white, ( Sida ) Sida. 

Seeds 2 to 9 in each of the cells, ( Abutilon ) Indian-Mallow. 

Anthers attached along the sides of the upper part of the slender column. Pod of 3 to 5 
cells, and splitting into as many valves. 

Involucel of many thread-shaped leaves. « 

Calyx splitting down one side when the flower opens. Pod long, ( AbelmdscTius ) * Okra. 

Calyx not splitting down one side. Pod short. Seeds naked, ( Hibiscus) Hibiscus. 

Involucel of 3 heart-shaped toothed leaves. Seeds bearing wool, ( Gossypiurn) * Cotton. 



317 320 318 319 322 321 


317, Stamens of Mallow united in a tube (monadelphous). 318. An anther more magnified. 319. Flowers and leaf of 
Marsh-Mallow. 320. Its compound pistil magnified. 321. Pod of Hibiscus surrounded by the calyx and involu¬ 
cel. 322. The pod splitting into 5 valves. 

Mallow. Malva. 

Involucel or outer calyx 3-leaved. Petals notched at the upper and broader end. Styles many. 
Little pods or cells many in a ring around a narrow axis or column (the whole shaped like a cheese), 
when ripe falling away separately, each one-seeded. — Herbs; flowering all summer. 

1. Low Mallow. Root very long ; stems spreading on the ground ; leaves round-kidney-shaped, 

long-stalked, scarcely lobed, crenate; flowers several in the axils, small, whitish. Very common 
weed in waste and cultivated ground. M. rotundifolia. 

2. High M. Stem 3° high; leaves lobed; flowers large, rose-purple. Gardens. M. sylvestris. 

3. Musk M. Stem 2° high; leaves 5-parted and the divisions cut into linear lobes (the smell faintly 

musky); flowers large, rose-color. Gardens. M. moschata. 

4. Curled M. Stem 4° to 6° high ; leaves round, toothed, much curled around the edge ; flow¬ 

ers small,white, sessile in the axils. Gardens. M. crispa. 

Hibiscus. Eibiscus. 

Flowers large, with an involucel of many narrow bractlets, and a 5-cleft calyx, which does not open 
down one side. Stamens in a long and slender column. Stigmas 5. Pod short, 5-celled, splitting 
when ripe into 5 valves, many-seeded; the seeds smooth or hairy, not long-woolly. Showy herbs or 
shrubs: flowering in autumn. 








POPULAR FLORA. 


133 


1. Shrubby or Althaea Hibiscus. Shrub 5° to 10° high, smooth ; leaves wedge-ovate, toothed, 

3-lobed ; flowers short-stalked, white, purple-red, &c. (single or double). Cultivated for orna¬ 
ment. H. Syriacus. 

2. Great Red H. Herb 8° high from a perennial root, smooth; leaves deeply cleft into 5 lance-linear 

lobes; corolla red, 8' to 11' broad! S. and in gardens. H. coccineus. 

3. Halberd-leaved H. Herb 6° high from a perennial root, smooth; lower leaves 3-lobed, upper 

halberd-shaped; calyx bladdery after flowering; corolla flesh-colored, 3'long. H.militaris. 

4. Marsh H. Herb 5° high from a perennial root; leaves soft-downy and whitish underneath, ovate, 

pointed, the lower 3-lobed; base of the flower-stalks and leafstalks often grown together; corolla 
5' broad, white or rose-color with a crimson eye. Salt marshes, &c. II. Moscheutos. 

5. Bladder-Ketmia H. (or Flower-of-an-IIour). Herb 1° to 2° high from an annual root, somewhat 

hairy; lower leaves toothed, upper 3-parted, with narrow divisions; corolla greenish-yellow with a 
dark-brown eye, opening only in midday sunshine; calyx bladdery after flowering, enclosing'the 
pod. Gardens, &c. II. Trionum. 


18. LINDEN FAMILY. Order TILIACEiE. 

Has the tough and fibrous inner bark and the bland mucilage of the Mallow family, 
distinctions are shown in the only genus we have, viz. : — 




323 326 

323. American Linden, in flower. 324. Magnified cross-section of a flower-bud. 
325. A tuft of stamens with the petal-like scale. 326. Pistil. 327. Fruit 
cut in two. 


Its 


Linden or Basswood. Tilia. 

Sepals 5, thick, valvate (the margins edge to edge) in the bud, falling off after flowering. Petals 5, 
cream-color. Stamens very many, on the receptacle, in 5 clusters: anthers 2-celled. Pistil one: ovary 
5-celled, with two ovules in each cell; in fruit woody, small, closed, mostly one-seeded. Large, soft- 
wooded trees, with heart-shaped leaves, often oblique at the base. Flowers in a small cluster on a 
slender and hanging peduncle from the axil of a leaf, and united part way with d narrow leaf-like bract. 
(Also called Lime-trees.) 









134 


POPULAR FLORA. 


1. American Linden or Basswood. Leaves green, smooth, or in some varieties downy underneath; 

a petal-like body in the middle of each of the 5 clusters of stamens. T. Americana. 

2. European Linden. Leaves smooth or nearly so; stamens hardly in clusters, no petal-like bodies 

with them. Cultivated in cities, &c. as a shade-tree. T. Europcea. 

19. CAMELLIA FAMILY. Order CAMELLIACEiE. 

Shrubs or small trees, with alternate and simple leaves, not dotted; large and showy 
flowers, with a persistent calyx of 5 overlapping sepals, and very many stamens, their fila¬ 
ments united at the bottom with each other and with the base of the petals. Anthers 
2-celled. Fruit a woody pod of 3 to 6 cells, containing few large seeds. To this belongs 
the grateful Tea-plant of China, and the 

Camellia, of our green-houses, Camellia Japonica. 

Loblolly-Bay, of swamps in the Southern States, Gordonia Lasianthus. 


20. ORANGE FAMILY. Order AURANTIACE2E. 


Like the last, this family hardly claims a place here, being only house-plants, except far 
south. Known by having 20 or more stamens in one row around a single pistil, and the leaves 
having a joint between the blade and the winged or margined footstalk: they (and the fra¬ 
grant petals) are punctate with transparent dots, looking like holes when held between the 
eye and the light, which are little reservoirs of fragrant oil. Fruit a berry with a thick rind. 
Orange, Citrus Aurdntium. 

Lemon, Citrus Limonium. 

21. FLAX FAMILY. Order LINACEA3. 


Herbs with tough fibres in the inner bark, simple leaves, and oily seeds with a mucilagi¬ 
nous coat; consisting only of the Flax genus, which is known by the following marks: — 



328. Common Flax. 


329. Half of a flower, enlarged. 


330. Pod, cut across. 


Flax. Linum. 

Sepals 5, overlapping, persistent. Petals 5, on the receptacle. Stamens 5, united with each other 
at the bottom. Styles 5. Pod 10-celled and splitting when ripe into 10 pieces with one seed in each. 
Flowers opening only for one day. 




POPULAR FLORA. 


135 


1. Common Flax. Root annual; leaves lance-shaped; flower blue. Cultivated. L. usitatissimum. 

2. Virginia Flax. Root perennial; leaves oblong or lance-shaped; flowers very small, yellow. Dry 

woods. L. Virginianum. 

22. WOOD-SORREL FAMILY. Order OXALIDACEiE. 

Small herbs with sour juice, compound leaves of three leaflets, and flowers nearly as in 
the Flax family, but with 10 stamens, a 5-celled pod, and two or more seeds in each cell. 
One genus, viz. 

Wood-Sorrel. Oxalis. 

Sepals, petals, and styles 5. Stamens 10; filaments united (monadelphous) at the base. Pod thin, 
5-lobed. Leaflets obcordate. Flowering in summer. 

1. Common \V. One-flowered scape and leaves rising from a scaly rootstock, hairy; petals large, 

white with reddish veins. N. in cold and moist woods. 0. Acetosella. 

2. Violet W. Several-flowered scape and leaves, from a scaly bulb; petals violet. 0. violacea. 

3. Yellow W. Stems ascending, leafy; flowers 2 to 6 on one peduncle, small, yellow. 0. siricta. 


23. GERANIUM FAMILY. Order GERANIACEiE. 

Herbs or small shrubs, with scented leaves, having stipules, the lower ones opposite., 

Roots astringent.. Sepals 
5, overlapping. Petals 
5. Stamens 10, but part 
of them in some eases 
without anthers : fila¬ 
ments commonly united 
at the bottom. Pistils 
5 grown into one, that 
is, all united to a long 
beak of the receptacle 
(except the 5 stigmas) ; 
and when the fruit is 
ripe the styles split away 
from the beak and curl 
up or twist, carrying 
with them the five lit¬ 
tle one-seeded pods, as 
shown in Fig. 334. — There are three genera, viz. Geranium or Cranesbill; Erodium, 
which differs in having only 5 stamens with anthers, and the fruit-bearing styles bearded 
inside; and Pelargonium, which has the corolla more or less irregular, generally 7 stamens 
with anthers, &c. The latter are the House Geraniums, from the Cape of Good Hope, 
of several species and many varieties. We describe only the wild species of true 



?31. Leaf, and 332. Flowers of Wild Geranium. 333. Stamens and pistil. 334. Fruit bursting. 
335. Seed. 336. Same, cut across. 



136 


POPULAR FLORA, 


Geranium or Cranesbill. Geranium. 

Petals all alike. All 10 stamens with anthers, every other one shorter. — Herbs. 

1. Spotted G. Stem erect, from a perennial root; leaves 5-parted, also cut and toothed, often 

whitish-blotched; petals pale purple. Borders of woods; fl. in spring and summer. G. maculatum. 

2. Carolina G. Stems spreading from a biennial or annual root; leaves 5-parted, and cut into nar¬ 

row lobes; flowers small; petals flesh-color, notched at the end. Waste places. G. Carolinianum. 

3. Herb-Robert G. Stems spreading; leaves 3-divided, and the divisions twice pinnately cleft; 

flowers small, purple. Moist woods and ravines; fl. summer. G. Robertianum. 


24. INDIAN-CRESS FAMILY. Order TROPiEOLACEiE. 

Twining, climbing, or trailing herbs, with a watery juice of a sharp taste like Mustard, 
alternate leaves, and showy irregular flowers, as in 


Indian-Cress (commonly called Nasturtium). Tropceolum. 

Calyx projecting into a long hollow spur behind, petal-like, 5-cleft. Petals 5, of two sorts, two of 
them borne on the throat of the calyx, the 3 others with claws. Stamens 8, unequal. Fruit 3-lobed, 
separating into 3 thick and closed one-seeded pieces. 

1. Common I. or Nasturtium. Very smooth; leaves roundish, shield-shaped; flowers large; petals 

orange-yellow, the claws of 3 of them fringed. Cult, very common. T. majus. 

2. Canary-bird I. Climbing high; leaves deeply lobed; petals pale yellow, cut-fringed. Cult. 

* T. peregr'inum. 

25. BALSAM FAMILY. Order BALSAMINACEJ3. 


Tender annuals, with a bland watery juice and very irregular flowers; such as those 
of the principal genus, 

^—\ Balsam (or Jewel-weed). Impatient. 

( ^ ) Calyx and corolla colored alike and diffi¬ 

cult to distinguish, in all of 6 pieces, the 
largest one extended backward into a large 
and deep sac ending in a little spur; and the 
two innermost unequally 2-lobed. Stamens 
on the receptacle, 5, very short, united over 
the pistil. This forms a thick-walled pod, 
which when ripe suddenly bursts with con¬ 
siderable force, or falls into 5 coiling pieces 
at the touch, scattering the rather large 
seeds. — Leaves simple, alternate. Flowers 
showy, produced all summer. 




X. Garden Balsam. Flowers very showy, white, red, or pink, often double, clustered in the axils 
of the crowded lance-shaped leaves. Garden annual. I. Balsdmina. 

2. Pale Jewel-weed. Flowers pale-yellow, sparingly spotted, the hanging sac broader than long; 

leaves ovate or oblong. Common in rich and shady or wet soil. I. pallida. 

3. Spotted Jewel-weed. Flowers orange, spotted with reddish-brown; sac longer than broad. 

I.fulva. 



POPULAR FLORA, 


137 


26. RUE FAMILY. Order EUTACEJE. 

Strong-scented, sharp-tasted, and bitter-acrid plants, the leaves dotted with transparent 
dots like punctures (which are filled with volatile oil) ; the stamens on the receptacle, as 
many or twice as many as the petals. 

Herbs, very strong-scented, with perfect flowers. Stamens 8 or 10. 

Leaves decompound. Flowers yellow: petals concave. Pod roundish, ( Ruta) * Rue. 

Leaves pinnate. Flowers white or purple, large: petals slender: stamens long. Pods 

5, flattened, slightly united, ( Dictamnus) * Fraxinella. 

Shrubs or trees. Stamens 4 br 5, only as many as the petals. 

Flowers dioecious. Pistils 2 to 5, making fleshy pods with one or two black seeds. 

Leaves pinnate. Stems prickly, ( Zanthoxylum ) Prickly-Ash. 

Flowers polygamous. Pistil 1, making a 2-celled, 2-seeded key, winged all round. 

Leaflets 3. Stems not prickly, ( Pt'elea ) Hop-tree. 

27. SUMACH FAMILY. Order ANACAKDIACEiE. 

Trees or shrubs with a milky or a resinous-acrid juice (in some cases poisonous), and al¬ 
ternate leaves : — of which we have only the genus 

Sumach. Rhus. 

Flowers small, greenish-white or yellowish. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5; the latter bonie on an en¬ 
largement of the receptacle which fills the bottom of the calyx. Styles or stigmas 3, on a one-celled 
ovary, which makes a one-seeded little stone-fruit with a thin flesh. FI. summer. Nos. 4 and 5 are 
poisonous to most people when touched. 

1. Stagiiokn Sumach. Small tree; branches and stalks velvety-hairy; leaves pinnate, pale be¬ 

neath ; flowers and crimson-hairy sour fruit very many, in a great crowded panicle. R. typhina. 

2. Smooth S. Shrub; branches and stalks very smooth, pale: otherwise like the last. R. glabra. 

3. Dwarf S. Shrub 1° to 4° high; branches and stalks downy; leaves'pinnate, with the stalk wing- 

margined between the shining leaflets; fruits red and hairy. R. copdWina. 

4. Poison S. or Dogwood. Shrub smooth; leaves pinnate; leaflets 7 to 13, entire; panicles slender 

in the axils; fpit smooth. Poisonous to most people. Swamps. R. venenata. 

5. Poison Ivy. Smooth; stems climbing by rootlets; leaflets 3, large, ovate, either entire, notched, or 

lobed, variable on the same stem. Poisonous like the last. R. Toxicodendron. 

6. Venetian S. or Smoke-tree. Shrub, with simple oval or obovate leaves; branches of the panicle 

lengthening after flowering, and feathered with long hairs, making large light bunches. Cult. 

R. Cotinus. 

28. GRAPE FAMILY. Order VITACE^E. 

Shrubby plants with a watery and sour juice, climbing by tendrils; known by having a 
minute calyx with scarcely any lobes, the petals valvate (edge to edge) in the bud and fall¬ 
ing off very early, and the stamens (5 or 4) one before each petal! — Only two genera. 

Grape. Vitis. 

Petals 6, cohering slightly at the top while they separate at the base, and generally thrown off with¬ 
out expanding. Berry with 4 bony seeds. Leaves lobed. Flowers polygamous in the wild species, 
and having the fragrance of Mignonette. 


138 


POPULAR FLORA. 


1. European Grape. Flowers all perfect; leaves deeply and sharply lobed. Cult, in several varie¬ 

ties, viz. Sweetwater Grape, Black Hamburg, &c. V. vinifera. 

2. Northern Fox-Grape. Leaves very woolly when young, remaining rusty-woolly beneath; ber¬ 

ries large, purple or amber-colored. — Improved varieties of this, without the foxy taste and the 
tough pulp, are the Isabella and the Catawba Grapes. F. Labi'usca. 

3. Summer Grape. Leaves with loose cobwebby down underneath, smoothish when old ; panicles of 

fertile flowers very long and slender; berries small, ripe with first frost. F. ceslivalis. 

4. Frost Grape. Leaves thin, heart-shaped, never woolly, not shining, sharply and coarsely toothed, 

little or not at all lobed ; panicles loose ; berries blue or black with a bloom, sour, ripening late. 
Common along river-banks, &c. V. cordifolia. 

5. Muscadine or Southern Fox-Grape. Bark of the stem close, not thrown off in loose strips, as 

in the others; leaves round-heart-shaped, shining, not downy, very coarsely toothed; panicles small, 
with crowded flowers; berry large, musky, with a very thick and tough skin. A variety is the 
Scuppernong Grape. Common S. F. vulpma. 

Virginia-Creeper. Ampelopsis. 

Petals 5, thick, opening before 
they fall. Leaves palmate with 5 
leaflets (Fig. 74). Berries small, 
blackish. A very common tall- 
climbing vine, wild and culti¬ 
vated. A. quinquefolia. 


340. Flower opening". 341. Same, with the 
petals fallen. 




29. BUCKTHORN FAMILY. Order RHAMNACEJE. 

Woody plants, with simple alternate leaves, known by having the stamens as many as the 

small petals (4 or 5) and one before each of them, 
both inserted on the calyx or on a fleshy cup which 
lines the tube of the calyx; the lobes of the latter 
valvate, i. e. edge to edge in the bud. Fruit of 2 to 
5 cells, and one large seed in each. 

342. Flowers of a Buckthorn. 343. Same, cut through lengthwise. 



Calyx free from the ovary, greenish. Petals shorter than the calyx, or none, ( Rhamnus) Buckthorn. 
Calyx below adherent to the ovary, its lobes petal-like (white in our species) and 

bent inwards, shorter than the stamens and long-clawed petals, ( Ceanothus) New-Jersey Tea. 






I 


POPULAR FLORA. 


139 


30. STAFF-TREE FAMILY. Order CELASTRACEJE. 

Woody plants, with simple alternate or opposite leaves; the divisions of the calyx and 
the petals both overlapping in the bud; the stamens as many as the petals (4 or 5) and 
alternate with them, inserted on a thick expansion of the receptacle (disk) which fills the 
bottom of the calyx. Pod colored, of 2 to 5 mostly one-seeded cells, showy when ripe in 
autumn, especially when they open and display the seeds enveloped in a pulpy scarlet aril. 
Flowers polygamous or nearly dioecious, white, in racemes: disk cup-shaped: style long. 

Pod globular, orange-yellow. Leaves alternate. Our only species is a twin¬ 
ing shrub, sometimes called Bittersweet, ( Celastrus) Waxwork. 

Flowers perfect, flat, dull green or dark purple, in axillary racemes: disk flat, covering 
the ovary, and bearing 4 or 5 very short stamens, the short style just rising 
through it. Pods red, lobed. Shrubs: leaves opposite, ( Euonymus ) Burning-bush 

Pods smooth, strongly lobed, or Spindle-tree. 

Pods roundish, rough, ( Euonymus ) Strawberry-bush. 




31. SOAPBERRY FAMILY. Order SAPINDACE^l. 

The proper Soapberry family belongs mostly to warmer climates ; but we have 

3*7 344 3,3 343 f b ™ bS and treeS bel ° D g- 

ing to three of its sub¬ 
families : 

I. BLADDERNUT Sub¬ 
family. Flowers regular and 
perfect. Stamens 5, as many 
as the petals, and alternate 
with them. Seeds bony. 
Leaves opposite, pinnate or 
with 3 leaflets, having stipules, 
and also little stipules ( stipels ) 
to the leaflets. 

Shrub: flowers white in racemes. Fruit of 3 bladdery 
pods united. ( Staphylea) Bladdernut. 

II. HORSECHESTNUT Subfamily. Flowers po¬ 
lygamous, some of them having no good pistil, mostly 
irregular and unsymmetrical. Calyx bell-shaped or 
tubular, 5-toothed. Petals 4 or 5, with claws, on the 
receptacle. Stamens generally 7, long. Style one. 
Ovary 3-celled, with a pair of ovules in each cell, 
349 350 only one or two ripening in the fruit; which becomes 

314. Red Buckeye, reduced in size. 345 . Flower. 346. Same, a leathery 3-valved pod. Seeds very large, like chest- 
rvWe'd'^ngofwUe 1 ! ^ 48 * Same, Sd c^Lwi^'shoting^ ™ts. Fine ornamental trees, with opposite palmate 

two ovules io each cell. 349. Same, partly grown, only one seed ] e aveS, and flowers in thick panicles, 
growing. 350. Ripe pod bursting. 7 x 

Petals 5, spreading; stamens declined: fruit prickly. Leaflets 7, ( JEsculus ) *Horsechestnut. 

Petals 4, unlike, with long claws in the calyx. Leaflets generally 5, (JZsculus, § Pavia) Buckeye. 

10 









t 


140 POPULAR FLORA. 

III. MAPLE Subfamily. Flowers generally polygamous or dioecious, regular. Petals often 
none, but the calyx sometimes petal-like. Stamens 4 to 12. Styles 2, united below. Fruit a pair of 
keys united at the bottom (Fig. 208). Leaves opposite. 

Flowers dioecious, small and greenish: petals none: stamens 4 or 5. Leaves pinnate, 

with 3 to 5 veiny leaflets: twigs green, {Negundo) Negundo. 

Flowers polygamous or perfect. Leaves simple, palmately lobed, (Acer) Maple. 

Buckeye. AEscidus, § Pavia. 

All wild species at the West and South: also cultivated for ornament: flowering in late spring or 
summer. 

1. Fetid or Ohio Buckeye. Petals small, erect, pale yellow, shorter than the curved stamens; 

young fruit prickly like Horsechestnut ; a tree. River-banks, W. JE. glabra. 

2. Sweet Buckeye. Petals yellow or reddish, erect, enclosing the stamens; fruit smooth. JE. Jlava. 

3. Red Buckeye. Petals red, also the tubular calyx: otherwise like the last. Shrub. JE. Pavia. 

4. Small-flowered B. Leaflets stalked; petals white, rather spreading; stamens very long; fruit 

smooth; seed eatable, not bitter, as are the others; flowers in a long raceme-like panicle. Shrub. 

S. & cult. A. parviflora. 

Maple. Acer. 

* Flowers in terminal racemes, with petals, greenish, in late spring: stamens 6 to 8. 

1. Striped Maple. Bark green, with darker stripes; leaves large, with 3 short and taper-pointed 

lobes; racemes hanging. Small tree in-cool woods; common, N. A. Pennsylvdnicum. 

2 . Mountain M. Bark gray; leaves 3-lobed; racemes erect; flowers small. Shrub, N. A. spicatum. 

3. Sycamore M. An imported shade-tree, with large strongly 5-lobed leaves, and large hanging 

racemes, flowering soon after the leaves appear. A. Pseudo-Pldtanus. 

* * Flowers in loose clusters, yellowish-green, appearing with the leaves, in spring. 

4. Norway M. An imported shade-tree, with leaves resembling Sugar Maple, but brighter green on 

both sides, rounder, and with some long pointed teeth; flowers in an erect terminal corymb, with 
petals; wings of the fruit very large, diverging. A. platano'ides. 

5. Sugar or Rock M. Leaves with 3 or mostly 5 long-pointed lobes, their edges entire except a 

few coarse wuvy teeth; flowers hanging on very slender hairy stalks, without petals; fruit with 
rather small wings, ripe in autumn. Tall tree; in rich woods, and commonly planted for shade. 

A. saccharinum. 

* * * Flowers in early spring, considerably earlier than the leaves, on short pedicels, in small 
umbel-like clusters from lateral leafless buds: stamens generally 5: fruit ripe and falling in early 
summer. 

6. White or Silver M. Leaves very deeply 5-lobed, cut and toothed, white beneath; flowers 

greenish-yellow, short-stalked, without petals ; fruit woolly when young, with very large and 
smooth diverging wings. Tree common on river-banks, and planted for shade. A. dasycarpum. 

7. Red or Soft M. Leaves whitish beneath, with 3 or 5 short lobes, toothed; flowers on very 

short stalks which lengthen in fruit, with linear-oblong petals, red or sometimes yellowish ; 
wings of the fruit small, reddish. Wet places: a common tree. A. rubrum. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


141 


32. PULSE FAMILY. Order LEGUMINOSJE. 

A large family, distinguished by the peculiar irregular corolla called papilionaceous 
(i. e. butterfly-shaped), and for having the kind of pod called a legume for its fruit. Leaves 
alternate, often compound, with stipules. Stamens generally 10, inserted on the calyx. 
Pistil one, simple. The papilionaceous corolla, which is familiar in the Pea-blossom and the 
like, consists of 5 irregular petals; viz. an upper one, generally largest and outside in the 
bud, called the standard; two side petals, called wings, and two lower ones put together 
and commonly a little joined, forming a kind of pouch which encloses the stamens and 

style, and which, being shaped somewhat like the prow 
of an ancient vessel, is named the keel. A few flowers in 
the family are almost regular, or not papilionaceous. In 
one case (to be mentioned in its place) all but one petal is 
wanting. Another set have perfectly regular blossoms; 
but are known by the pod and leaves. The legume is of 
every variety of shape and size. The whole kernel of 
the seed is an embryo, with thick cotyledons, as is familiar 
in the Bean and Pea (Fig. 32, 42). We give the princi¬ 
pal sorts. 



351. Papilionaceous corolla of Locust. 



352. Its petals displayed : s, standard ; 
u>, w, wings ; k, the keel laid open. 


353. Legume of 
Pea, open. 


354. Flower of False Indigo No. 2. 355. Same, with the 
petals removed. 

356. Flower of Amorpha, enlarged. 357. Stamens and pistil 
of the same. 


I. TRUE PULSE Family. Corolla really papilionaceous, and the standard outside, wrapped around 
the other petals in the bud (in Amorpha, Fig. 356, only the standard is present). Leaves either sim¬ 
ple or only once compound. 






142 


POPULAR FLORA. 


* Stamens, 10, united by their filaments, either all into a closed tube ( monadelphous , Fig. 187), or 9 in 

a tube split down on one side, and the 10th separate or nearly so {diadelphom, Fig. 186). 

Shrubs or trees, not twining nor climbing. 

Flowers white or rose-colored, in hanging racemes. Leaves odd-pinnate, ( Robinia ) Locust-tree. 
Flowers yellow, in small racemes. Pod bladdery. Leaves odd-pinnate, ( Coliitea ) *Bladder-Senna. 
Flowers yellow, in hanging racemes. Pod narrow. Leaflets 3, ( Cytisus) * Laburnum. 

Shrubs, with long twining stems. Flowers blue-purple in racemes, ( Wistaria) Wistaria. 

Herbs. 

Stems not twining, climbing, nor with any trace of tendrils. 

Leaves simple: stipules winging the stem below the leaf. Flowers yellow. Pod 

inflated, many-seeded, ( Crotalaria) Rattlebox. 

Leaves of 5 to 15 palmate leaflets. Flowers in a long raceme, ( Lupinus) Lupine. 

Leaves abruptly pinnate, of 4 leaflets. Pod formed underground, ( A'rachis ) * Peanut. 

Leaves odd-pinnate, of several or many leaflets. 

Leaflets serrate. Flowers single, white. Pod inflated, 2-seeded, ( Cicer) * Chick-Pea. 
Leaflets entire. Flowers in a raceme or spike. 

Corolla broad. Pod flat, narrow, several-seeded, ( Tephrosia) Hoary-Pea. 

Corolla narrow. Pod inflated or turgid, often 2-celled, (Astragalus ) Astragal. 

Leaves of 3 (or rarely 5) leaflets. Pods like akenes or burs. 

Stipules cohering with the base of the leafstalk. 

Flowers in heads. Pod thin and small, in the persistent calyx, ( Trifolium) Clover. 
Flowers in spikes or racemes. 

Leaflets not dotted, but generally serrate. 

Pods wrinkled, like akenes, coriaceous, ( Melilbtus) Melilot. 

Pods curved, or else coiled up in various ways, ( Mediccigo) Medick. 

Leaflets, &c. sprinkled with dark dots, entire. (Psoralea) Psoralea. 

Stipules not at all united with the leafstalk. 

Pods very small and flat, closed, one-seeded, ( Lespedeza ) Bush-Clover. 

Pods separating into several-seeded flat roughish joints, ( Desmodium ) Tick-Trefoil. 
Stems climbing or disposed to climb : leaves pinnate with a tendril at the end. 

Calyx with 5 leafy lobes. Seeds globular. Leaflets few, ( Pisum) * Pea. 

Calyx-lobes or teeth not leafy. 

Tendril conspicuous. Style hairy along the inner side, ( Ldthyrus) Everlasting-Pea. 
Tendril conspicuous. Style hairy round the tip, ( Vida) Vetch. 

Tendril hardly any. Seed oblong, fixed by one end, (Faba) * Horse-Bean. 

Stems twining more or less: no tendrils to the leaves. 

Keel of the corolla coiled into a ring or spiral. 

Leaflets 3, with stipels, (Phaseolus ) Bean. 

Leaflets 5 or 7. Flowers brown-purple. Tubers underground, ( A'pios ) Groundnut. 

Keel not coiled or twisted. Leaflets 3, with stipels. 

Calyx 4-cleft, the lobes acute, ( Galactia) Milk-Pea. 

Calyx 4-toothed. Pods both above and under ground, (Amphicarpcea) Hog-Peanut. 
Calyx tubular, 5-toothed. Flower large, purple-blue, ( Clitoria) Butterfly-Pea. 

* * Stamens 10, separate, except at the very base. Petal only one! (Fig. 356.) Shrubs: 

leaves pinnate: flowers small, violet-purple, in a spike or raceme, ( Amorpha) Amorpha. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


143 


* * * Stamens 10, separate (Fig. 355). Petals 5, pea-like. Pod inflated, ( Baptisia) False-Indigo. 

II. BRASILETTO Subfamily. Corolla sometimes papilionaceous or nearly so, but then with 
the standard within the other petals, generally more or less irregular; the petals overlapping one an¬ 
other in the bud. Stamens 10 or fewer, separate. 

Trees, w r ith simple round-heart-shaped leaves, but appearing rather later than the papilio¬ 
naceous purple-red flowers, ( Cercis ) Red-bud. 

Herbs, with abruptly pinnate leaves and yellow flowers, not papilionaceous, ( Cassia) Senna. 

Trees, with the leaves, or some of them, more than once compound. Flowers dioecious 
or polygamous, not at all papilionaceous. 

Stamens 10, and petals 5, on the top of the funnel-shaped tube of the calyx. Pods 

broad and hard. Leaves very large, twice-pinnate, ( Gymnocladus) Kentucky Coffee-tree. 

Stamens and petals 3 to 5, on the bottom of an open calyx. Pods long and flat, hav¬ 
ing a sweet juice or pulp inside. Leaves, some of them once pinnate, others twice 
pinnate. Tree with compound thorns, ( Gleditschia) Honey-Locust. 


III. MIMOSA Subfamily. Flowers very small, in heads or spikes, regular: petals edge to edge in 
the bud, and sometimes united below. Leaves generally twice or thrice pinnate. 

Stamens very many and long, yellow or yellowish. (Cult, in greenhouses: some species 

are wild far South), * Acacia. 

Stamens 5. Petals separate, whitish. Pod smooth, ( Desmdnthus) Desmanthus. 

Stamens 4 or 5. Petals united into a cup, rose-color. Pod bristly, flat, breaking up into 

joints. Leaves closing suddenly when touched, ( Mimosa) * Sensitive-plant. 

Stamens 10 or 12. Petals united into a cup, rose-color. Pod narrow, rough-prickly. 

Leaves rather sensitive. S , ( Schrankia) Sensitive-Brier. 


Locust-tree. Robinia. 

Flowers showy, in hanging axillary racemes. Stamens diadelphous. Pod flat, several-seeded. 
Leaves odd-pinnate. — Trees, wild in the Southern, cult, in the Northern States. FI. in early summer. 
1. Common Locust-tree. Tree with a pair of spines for stipules; flowers white, in slender racemes, 
sweet-scented; pod smooth. R. Pseudacdcia. 


2. Clammy L. Tree with clammy twigs; racemes thick; calyx purplish; pod rough. R.viscdsa. 

3. Bristly L. or Rose-Acacia. Shrub, with bristly stalks and twigs; flowers large, rose-colored. 

R. hispida. 

Clover (or Trefoil). Trifolium. 

Flowers many in a head. Calyx persistent, its teeth very slender. Corolla withering away or per¬ 
sistent after flowering; the petals grown together more or less into a tube below, and the diadelphous 
stamens united with it. Pod generally shorter than the calyx, thin, only one- or few-seeded. Low 
herbs: leaves with 3 leaflets, the stipules adhering to the base of the footstalk (Fig. 136). 

1. Red Clover. Leaflets obovate or oval, with a pale spot on the upper side; flowers rose-red, in a 

dense head with leaves underneath it. Fields, cultivated. T.pratense. 

2. Buffalo C. Leaflets obovate, toothed : flowers rose-colored, pedicelled, in an umbel-like long- 

stalked head. Prairies, &c., W. & S. T. reflexum. 

3. White C. Low, smooth, creeping; leaflets obcordate or notched; flowers white, in a loose umbel¬ 

like head, raised on a long stalk. Fields, &c., everywhere. T. repens. 


144 


POPULAR FLORA. 


4. Rabbit-foot C. Silky, low, erect, and branching; root annual; leaflets narrow; flowers whitish, 

in dense and soft-silky oblong heads. Common in poor dry land. T. arvense. 

5. Yellow C. Low, annual, smoothish; corolla yellow, turning brownish. Waste grounds. 

T. agrarium- 

Melilot (or Sweet-Clover). Melilotus. 

Flowers in a raceme or spike, small. Corolla falling after flowering. Pod roundish and small, like 
an akene, hardly opening, containing only one or two seeds. — Annuals or biennials, with sweet-scented 
foliage; leaflets three, toothed. Growing in gardens and around houses. 

1. Yellow Melilot. Leaflets obovate or oblong, obtuse; corolla light yellow. M. officinalis. 

2. White M. Leaflets as if cut off square at the end; corolla white. M. alba. 


Medick. Medicdgo. 

Flowers like those of Melilot, either few or many in a cluster. Pod curved or coiled, either kidney¬ 
shaped or rolled up spirally in various ways. Leaves of 3 leaflets. 

1. Lucerne, or Purple Medick. Stems upright from a deep perennial root; 

leaflets obovate-oblong ; flowers purple in short racemes ; pods spiral. 

Cultivated for green fodder. M. saliva. 

2. Black M. Stems reclining; leaflets wedge-obovate; flowers yellow, in 

short spikes; pods curved (Fig. 358), wrinkled, turning blackish. Waste 
grounds. M. lupul'ina. 

3. Snail M., with 2-flowered peduncles, is sometimes cultivated in gardens, on account of its singular 

pods coiled like a shell (Fig. 359). M. scutellata. 



Everlasting-Pea or Yetchling. Lathyrus. 

Lobes or teeth of the calyx not leafy. Style flattish. Otherwise the flowers nearly the same as in 
the true Pea. 

* Garden species, cultivated for ornament; with winged stems and only one pair of leaflets. 

1. Sweet Pea. Root annual; flowers 2 or 3 on a long peduncle, sweet-scented ‘ L. odorcitus. 

2. Garden Everlasting-Pea. Root perennial; flowers many, pink or purple. L. latifolius. 

* * Wild species, with perennial roots and more than one pair of leaflets. 

3. Marsh E. Stems lightly winged or margined; leaflets 2 to 4 pairs, lance-linear or lance-oblong; 

stipules lance-shaped; flowers 2 to 5, purple. Moist ground, N. L. palustris. 

4. Pale E. Leaflets 3 or 4 pairs, ovate, pale; stipules rather large, half heart-shaped; flowers 7 to 10, 

cream-color. Banks and thickets, W. & N. L. ochroleiicus. 

5. Veiny E. Leaflets 5 to 7 pairs, oblong or ovate; stipules very small; flowers many on the peduncle, 

purple. Shady banks, S. & W. L. venosus. 

6. Beach Pea. Leaflets 4 to 6 pairs, oval or obovate; stipules large and leafy; flowers 6 to 10 on the 

peduncle, purple. Shore of the sea, N. and of the Great Lakes. L. marilimus. 


Vetch or Tare. Vida. 

Like the last, but with small and usually more numerous leaflets; and the thread-shaped style hairy 
round the end or down the outer side. 

* Perennials, all wild species: flowers small, in a raceme on a long peduncle. 

1. Tufted V. Downy; leaflets many, lance-oblong, strongly mucronate ; flowers crowded, bent 
down in the spike, blue, turning purple, summer. Thickets, N. V. Cracca. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


145 


2. Carolina V. Smooth; leaflets 8 to 12, oblong; flowers many, whitish, tipped with blue, rather 

scattered on the peduncle, in spring. Banks, &c., common. V. Caroliniana. 

3. American V. Smooth; leaflets 10 to 14, oval or oblong, very veiny; flowers 4 to 8 on the pe¬ 

duncle, purplish or bluish, in summer. N. V. Americana. 

* * Annual: flowers large, one or two together, sessile in the axils of the leaves. 

4. Common Tare. Leaflets 10 to 14, narrow; flowers violet-purple. Cultivated fields, V. sativa. 


Bean. Phas'eolus. 

Keel of the corolla (with the- included stamens and style) twisted or coiled, so as to form a ring, or 
one or more turns of a spiral coil. Stamens diadelphous. Pod flat or flattish, several-seeded. Seeds 
flattish. Plants twining more or less, in one cultivated variety short and erect. Leaves of three 
leaflets, the end leaflet some way above the other two (i. e. pinnate of 3 leaflets): and they have stipels 
or little stipules to the leaflets. FI. summer. 


* Wild species: mostly found South and West. 

1. Perennial Bean. Climbing high; leaflets round-ovate, pointed; flowers in long panicled racemes, 

purple; pods curved. Wooded banks, &c. - P. perennis. 

2. Trailing Bean. Annual, spreading on the ground ; leaflets 3-lobed or angled ; flowers few, 

crowded at the end of a long erect peduncle, purplish; pods narrow, straight. Sandy places. 

P. diversifolius. 

* * Cultivated Beans. 


3. Common or Kidney Bean. Known by its straight pods, pointed by the hardened lower part of the 

style, and the thick rather kidney-shaped seeds. The Dwarf or Bush Bean is a low and 
small variety which does not twine. The Scarlet Runner is a free climbing variety, gen¬ 
erally red-flowered. P. vulgaris. 

4. Lima Bean. Known by its broad ancUflat, curved or scymitar-shafed pods, with few and large flat 

seeds. The Civet Bean is a small variety of it. P. lunatus. 


False-Indigo. Baptisia. 

Flowers generally in racemes. Standard erect, with the sides rolled back: keel-petals nearly sepa¬ 
rate and straight, like the wings. Stamens 10, separate! Pod stalked in the calyx, bladdery, but 
rather thick-walled, pointed, containing many small seeds. — Perennial herbs, erect and branched, 
with palmate leaves of 3 leaflets. — The commonest are the following: — 

1. Yellow False-Indigo. Glaucous, bushy-branched; leaves almost sessile; leaflets small, wedge- 

obovate; flowers few at the ends of the panicled branchlets, yellow, produced all summer. Dry 
grounds, common. B. linctoria. 

2. Blue F. Tall and stout; stipules lance-shaped, as long as the petiole; leaflets wedge-oblong; 

flowers many, large, blue, in a long'raceme, in spring or early summer. (Fig. 354, 355.) Rich 
soil; common W. & S. and also cultivated in gardens. B. australis. 


Senna. Cassia. 

Calyx of 5 sepals. Petals 5, spreading, not papilionaceous, but a little irregular. Stamens 10, but 
those on one side of the blossom commonly shorter, or without anthers; the anthers open at the top 
by two chinks or holes. Pods many-seeded. — Leaves simply and abruptly pinnate. The common 
species are herbs, with yellow flowers, in summer. 


146 


POPULAR FLORA. 


1. Maryland Senna. Boot perennial; stems 3° or 4° high; leaflets 6 to 9 pairs, lance-oblong, 1' or 

more long, used for medicine instead of the imported senna. Rich soil. C. Marildndica. 

2. Partridge-Pea S. Annual, low, spreading; leaflets 10 to 15 pairs, linear-oblong, P long; flowers 

large and showy; anthers 10, six of them purple. Sandy fields. C. Chamcecrista. 

3. Sensitive S. Flowers small, short-stalked; anthers only 5: otherwise like the last. C. nictitans. 


33. ROSE FAMILY. Order ROSACEA3. 

A large and most important family of plants, distinguished by having alternate leaves 
with stipules, and regular flowers; their generally 5 petals (sometimes wanting) and sta¬ 
mens (generally numerous, at least 
above 10) inserted on the persistent 
calyx. The seeds are few and their 
whole kernel is embryo, as is seen in 
an almond (Fig. 36), Apple-seed, or 
Cherry-seed (Fig. 38), &c. The 
family furnishes some of our most 
esteemed fruits: all the plants are 
innocent, except the strong-scented 
foliage and bark, in the Almond sub¬ 
family. For figures illustrating this 
family, see those of Cherry-blossom 
(Fig. 193), Hawthorn-blossom (Fig. 
194), the fruit of Apple and Quince, 
(Fig. 200 and 201), Peach (Fig. 
202), Rose and Strawberry (Fig. 220 
- 222), and the annexed figures. 

I. ALMOND Subfamily. Pistil only one, free from the calyx, becoming a stone-fruit. — Trees or 
shrubs with simple leaves ; the bruised bark and foliage with a peculiar aromatic scent and flavor. — 
The plants of this division are all ranked under two great genera (Amygdalus and Pi'unu.s), but under 
several subgenera, here adopted for the convenience of the common names. 

Calyx with a rather deep cup. Petals rose or red-purple. Stone of the fruit rough. 

Flesh of the fruit becoming a dry husk. We have the dwarf Flowering-Almond in 

gardens, with double flowers. It does not form fruit here, ( Amygdalus ) * Almond. 

Flesh pulpy: surface downy (or in Nectarine smooth), (Persica ) *Peach. 

Calyx with a short and broad cup. Petals white. Stone of the fruit smooth, and 

Flattened, with grooved edges: skin of the fruit downy, ( Armeniaca) * Apricot. 

Flat or flattish, generally edged: fruit smooth, with a bloom, (Prunus) Plum. 

Roundish or globular: fruit smaller, smooth, without a bloom, ( Cerasus) Cherry. 

II. ROSE Subfamily. Pistils few or many (rarely only one), separate from each other and free 
from the persistent calyx, but sometimes (as in the Rose, Fig. 360) enclosed and concealed in its tube. 
Stipules generally united with the bottom of the leafstalk on each side. 




POPULAR FLORA, 


147 


Pistils generally 5, making few-seeded pods. 

Petals broad: calyx open, 5-cleft. Shrubs or herbs, ( Spiraea) Meadow-sweet. 

Petals lance-shaped: calyx narrow, 5-toothed. Herbs, ( Gillenia ) Indian-Physic. 

Pistils only one or two, making akenes, enclosed in the narrow-mouthed tube of the calyx. 

Petals 5, yellow: stamens 12 or more: calyx bur-like, ( Agrimonia ) Agrimony. 

Petals none; but the 4 spreading lobes of the smooth calyx petal-like. 

Flowers perfect, in a spike: stamens 4, long (white), ( Sanguisorba) Burnet. 

Flowers monoecious, in a head: stamens many, ( Poierium) * Salad-Burnet. 

Pistils 3 to 10, making akenes:- stamens many. (Stemless herbs.) 

Petals 5, yellow. Leaves of 3 leaflets, ( Waldsteinia) Barren-Strawberry. 

Petals 5, white. Leaves simple, rounded-heart-shaped, ( Dalibarda ) Dalibarda. 

Pistils many, making akenes, or in Bramble berry-like in fruit. 

Calyx open, with 5 additional outer lobes (making 10) or 5 accessory teeth. 

Akenes tipped with a long feathery or hooked or twisted tail (style), ( Geum) Avens. 

Akenes seed-like; the short style falling off. 

Receptacle of the fruit dry and small, ( Poientilla ) Cinquefoil. 

Receptacle of the fruit becoming very large and pulpy, ( Fragaria ) Strawberry. 

Calyx open, flat, 5-lobed. Ovaries in a head, becoming berry-like, ( Rubus ) Bramble. 

Calyx with an urn-shaped or globular closed tube and 5 lobes, (Rosa) Rose. 

III. PEAR Subfamily. Pistils 2 to 5, their styles more or less separate, their ovaries united with 
each other and with the thick tube of the calyx which encloses them and makes a fleshy fruit (pome). 
Stipules free from the leafstalk. Trees or shrubs. 

Cells of the fruit containing only one or two seeds. [or Shadbush. 

Petals long and narrow. Fruit berry-like, its cells becoming 10, (Ameldnchier) June-berry 
Petals broad or rounded. 

Fruit drupe-like, containing 2 to o stones, (Crataegus) Hawthorn. 

Fruit with 3 to 5 parchment-like pips. 

Leaves pinnate: fruit berry-like, scarlet when ripe, (Pyrus, § Sorbus) Mountain- Ash. 
Leaves simple. 

Flowers small in compound cymes: fruit small, berry-like, black or 

dark red, mawkish, (Pyrus, § Adenorachis) Chokeberry. 

Flowers large in simple clusters or umbels: fruit fleshy. 

Petals tinged with red or rose: fruit sunk in at both ends, (Pyrus, § Malus) Apple. 
Petals white: fruit tapering into the stalk, (True Pyrus) *Pear. 

Cells of the fruit parchment-like and many-seeded, ( Cydonia) * Quince. 

Cherry. Prunus , § Cerasus, &c. 

* Flowers, like those of Plums, two or more together on separate footstalks from separate lateral buds, 

appearing at the same time with the leaves. 

1. Cultivated Cherry : several varieties are commonly cultivated of the European, P. Cerasus. 

2. Wild Red Cherry. A small tree, with bright-green narrow leaves, and small light-red sour fruit. 

Common in rocky woods, &c. P- Pennsylvdnica. 

* * Flowers in hanging racemes, appearing after the leaves, late in spring. Wild species. 

3. Choke Cherry. Shrub or small tree, with gray branches, broad and sharply serrate leaves, and 

astringent dark crimson fruit, ripe in summer. P. Virginiana. 


148 


POPULAR FLORA. 


4. Wild Black Cherry. Shrub or large tree, with reddish-brown bark on the branches, oblong or 
lance-oblong leaves with short and blunt teeth, and purplish-black vinous fruit, ripe in autumn. 

P. serdlina. 

Plum. Prunus. 


All are cultivated, except the Beach Plum ; but No. 2 is also wild; so is No. 3 in the Southwest. 

1. Common Plum ( P . domestica), with all its varieties, probably came from the Bullace Plum (P. 

insititia), and that perhaps from the thorny Sloe (P. spin'osa). 

2. Wild (Red and Yellow) Plum : well known for its very juicy pulp in a (red or partly yellow) 

tough skin; leaves coarsely serrate. P. Americana. 

3. Chickasaw Plum : with lance-shaped finely serrate leaves, and small red, thin-skinned, cherry¬ 

like fruit. S. P. Cliicasa. 

4. Beach Plum. A low bush on the sea-coast, with the leaves downy beneath, and a small purple 

or crimson fruit. P. maritima. 

Meadow-Sweet. Spircea. 

Calyx 5-cleft. Petals 5, broad or roundish. Pistils commonly 5, making little pods (follicles) with 
2 or few seeds in each. Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 6 are wild species, but also cult, in gardens and grounds. 

* Shrubs, with white flowers, except No. 2. 

1. Common Meadow-Sweet. Smooth, 2° or 3° high ; leaves oblong or lance-oblong and wedge- 

shaped; flowers in a crowded panicle, sometimes pale flesh-color. Wet grounds. S. saUcifolia. 

2. Downy M., or Hard hack. Leaves coated with wool beneath; flowers rose-color. S. tomentosa. 

3. Italian M., or Maywreath. Smooth ; stems 3° or 4° long, recurved; leaves small, spatulate, 

entire; flowers small, in umbels on short leafy shoots. Cult.; fl. in spring. S. hypericifblia. 

4. Ninebark M. Smoothish, 4° to 10° high; branches recurving; leaves rounded, 3-lobed ; flowers 

in umbels, in spring; pods 3 to 5, bladdery, turning purplish. Old bark of stems peeling off in 
thin layers. Rocky banks, N. & W., and cultivated. S. opulifolia. 

6. Sorb-leaved M. Smooth, 3° to 6° high; leaves pinnate; leaflets oblong-lance-shaped, pointed, cut¬ 
toothed ; flowers in a large panicle, in spring. Cultivated. S. sorbifolia. 

* * Herbs, with perennial roots, and interruptedly pinnate leaves, and flowers in a crowded compound 
cyme, on a long naked stalk. All but No. 6 are foreign species. 

6. Queen-of-the-Prairie M. Smooth; leaflets 3 to 7 and some little ones; end-leaflet very large, 

parted and cleft; flowers peach-blossom-color, in summer. W. and cult. 8. lobdta. 

7. English M. Leaves smaller than in the last, white-downy beneath; flowers white. S. Ulmaria. 

8. Dropwort M. Smooth; leaflets 9 to 21, besides the minute ones, linear-oblong, much cut; cymes 

of a few slender branches; flowers white, single or double. S. Jilipendula. 


Indian-Physic. Gill'enia. 

Calyx narrow or club-shaped, 5-toothed. Petals 5, lance-shaped, rather unequal, white or pale rose. 
Stamens 10 to 20, short. Pistils and little pods 5. — Herbs, with perennial roots, and leaves of three 
cut-toothed thin leaflets. Flowers in a loose corymb or panicle, in summer. 

1. Common Indian-Physic (or Bowman’s Root). Leaflets oblong; stipules small and entire. W. 

and cultivated in gardens. G. trifoliata. 

2. Western I. (or American Ipecac). Leaflets lance-shaped, more cut than in the last, as are the 

large stipules. W. G. stipulacea. 


FOPULAR FLORA, 


149 


Avens. Geum. 

Calyx bell-shaped or flattish, 5-cleft, and with 5 additional little lobes between. Petals 5. Stamens 
many. Pistils many in a head, making akenes, which are tipped with the style, remaining as a long, 
naked or hairy tail. Perennial herbs: flowers single or somewhat corymbed. — In all our common 
species the style is jointed and hooked round in the middle. 

* Upper and mostly hairy joint of the style falling off, leaving the lower and smooth portion, which 
remains hooked at the end: flowers rather small: root-leaves mostly interruptedly pinnate; stem- 
leaves or lobes 3 to 5. Dry woods and fields. 

1. White Avens. Smoothish or downy; petals white, as long as the calyx, akenes bristly. G. album. 

2. Virginian A. Bristly-hairy, stouter than the last; petals greenish-wliite, shorter than the calyx; 

akenes smooth. G. Virginianum. 

3. Yellow A. Bather hairy, large; petals yellow, longer than the calyx. G. slriclum. 

* * Upper joint of the style persistent and feathered with long hairs; flowers rather large, nodding. 

4. Water A. Boot-leaves with a large and rounded-lobed end-leaflet, and some very small ones 

below; stem-leaves few, 3-cleft or of 3 small leaflets; petals not spreading, somewhat notched at 
the broad summit, purplish. — Wet banks of streams. G. rivale. 

Cinquefoil. Potentilla. 

Calyx open or flat, 5-parted, and with 6 additional outside lobes alternate with the others, making 
10. Petals 5. Stamens many. Pistils many in a head, on a dry receptacle, making seed-like akenes, 
the styles falling off. 

* Leaves palmate. Herbs, with yellow flowers. 

1. Norway Cinquefoil. Erect, coarse, hairy; leaflets 3, obovate, cut-toothed. Fields. P. Norv'egica. 

2. Canada C. Bunner-like stems decumbent or spreading; leaflets 5, obovate-oblong; peduncles long, 

axillary, 1-flowered. Fields and banks. P. Canadensis. 

3. Silvery C. Low, with spreading branches, white-woolly, as are the 5 leaflets beneath. P. argentea. 

* * Leaves pinnate. Herbs (except No. 5): receptacle of the fruit hairy. 

4. Silver-weed. Creeping, sending up leaves of 9 to 19 cut-toothed leaflets, besides little ones inter¬ 

posed, silvery-white beneath, and single long-stalked yellow flowers. Wet banks, N. P. Anserina. 

5. Shrubby C. Shrub very bushy, 2° to 4° high; leaflets 5 or 7, crowded near the end of the short 

footstalk, lance-oblong, entire, silky beneath; flowers yellow. Bogs. P. fruticosa. 

6. Marsh C. Stems ascending from a scaly creeping base; leaflets 5 or 7, crowded, serrate, lance- 

oblong; flowers dull purple. Cold bogs, N. P.palustris. 

Bramble. Rubus. 

Calyx open, deeply 5-cleft. Petals 5. Pistils many; their ovaries ripening into little berry-like 
grains (or rather drupelets), making a kind of compound berry.—Bather shrubby or herbaceous pe¬ 
rennials. 

§ 1. BASPBEBBY. Fruit falling from the dry receptacle, usually with the grains lightly cohering. 
* Leaves simple, lobed: flowers large and showy: petals spreading. 

1. Purple Flowering-Baspberry. Bristly and clammy with odorous brownish glands ; leaves 

rounded, with 3 or 5 pointed lobes; flowers in a corymb, rose-purple; fruit flat. Bocky banks, 
N. FI. summer. R. odoraius. 

2. White Flowering-B. Like No. 1, but the flowers white and smaller. N. W. & cult. R. Nutkanus. 


150 


POPULAR FLORA. 


* * Leaflets 3 or 5, white-downy beneath: flowers small: petals white, erect. 

3. Garden Raspberry. Stems with some slender hooked prickles as well as bristles; petals shorter 

than the calyx; fruit red, &c., the grains minutely downy. Cult. R. Iddius. 

4. Wild Red R. Stems very bristly; petals as long as the calyx; fruit pale red, very tender. Very 

common N. strigosus. 

5. Black R. (or Thimbleberry). Plant glaucous all over; the long recurved stems and stalks 

beset with hooked prickles; fruit dark purple. Borders of woods and fields. R. occidentals. 
§ 2. BLACKBERRY. Fruit of large grains, remaining on the juicy receptacle, black or dark purple 
when ripe: petals white, spreading; leaflets 3 or 5. 

6. High Blackberry or Bramble. Stems mostly erect, angular, bearing stout curved prickles; 

young shoots hairy and glandular; leaflets ovate or oblong, pointed, downy underneath and prickly 
on the midrib; flowers large, in racemes; fruit large, sweet. R. villosus. 

7. Low B. (or Dewberry). Stems long, trailing; leaves smaller and nearly smooth; flowers fewer, 

and the large sweet fruit ripe earlier than in the last. Sterile or rocky ground. R. Canadensis. 

8. Sand B. Stems low, but erect, with stout hooked prickles; leaflets wedge-obovate, whitish-woolly 

beneath; fruit sweet. Sandy soil. New Jersey & S. R. cuneifblins. 

9. Running Swamp-B. Stems slender, creeping, hooked-prickly; leaves nearly evergreen, shining, 

obovate; flowers small; fruit of few grains, reddish until ripe, sour. Wet woods, N. R. hispidus. 

Rose. Rosa. 

Calyx with an urn-shaped hollow tube (Fig. 360), bearing 5 leafy lobes at the top, 5 petals and 
many stamens, and within enclosing many pistils attached to its walls. The ovaries ripen into bony 
and hairy akenes, and the calyx makes a fleshy or pulpy, red and berry-like fruit (hi/)). — Shrubs, with 
pinnate leaves of 3 to 9 leaflets. (Stigmas just rising to the mouth of the calyx, except in No. 1.) 

* Wild Roses. But No. 1 is cultivated, especially in double-flowered varieties, and the Sweet-Brier, 
which came from Europe, is also kept in gardens, for its sweet-scented leaves. Flowers in all 
bright rose-color. 

1. Prairie Rose. Stems climbing high, prickly; leaflets 3 or 5, large; petals deep rose-color turning 

pale; styles cohering together, and projecting out of the tube of the calyx; flowers in corymbs, 
scentless, in summer. Edges of prairies and thickets; W. and cult. R. setigera. 

2. Sweet-Brier R. (or Eglantine). Stems climbing, and with stout hooked prickles; leaflets 5 or 

7, roundish, downy and bearing russet fragrant glands beneath; hip pear-shaped. Road-sides, 
gardens, &c. R. rubiginosa. 

3. Swamp R. Stems erect, 4° to 7° high, with hooked prickles; leaflets dull, 5 to 9; flowers in 

corymbs; hips rather bristly, broader than long. R. Carolina. 

4. Low Wild R. Stems 1° to 3° high, w T ith mostly straight prickles; leaves smooth and commonly 

shining; flowers single or 2 to 3 together; hips as in the last. Common. R. liicida. 

5. Bland R. Low, pale or glaucous, with few or no prickles; calyx and globular hips very smooth. 

Rocks: flowering early in summer. N. R. blanda. 

* * Cultivated species are very numerous and much mixed. The commonest are: — 
Cinnamon Rose, R. cinnambmea. Damask R., R. Damascena. 

Scotch or Burnet R., R. spinosissima. Cabbage or Hundred-leaved R., R. centifolia. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


151 


Moss R., R. centi/olia, var. muscosa. China R., R. Indica. 

White R., R. alba. Cherokee R. at the South, R. laevigata. 

Yellow R., R. liitea. Multiflora R., R. multiflora. 

Hawthorn. Crataegus. 

Calyx with a globular or pear-shaped tube coherent with the 2- to 5-celled ovary, making a pome 
with as many one-seeded stones. Petals 5, roundish. Styles 2 to 5. Thorny small trees or shrubs. 
Flowers in spring, mostly in corymbs, white, or with a red variety of the cultivated. 

1. English Hawthorn (or White Thorn). Leaves obovate, with a wedge-shaped base, lobed 

and cut; styles 2 or 3; fruit small, coral-red. Cult, for hedges and ornament. C. Oxyacantha. 

2. Washington H. Leaves broadly ovate, truncate or a little heart-shaped at the base, often cleft or 

cut; styles 5; fruits coral-red, not larger than peas. S. C. cordata. 

3. Scarlet-fruited H. Smooth; leaves round-ovate, thin, toothed or cut, on slender stalks; fruit 

scarlet, oval, £' in diameter. C. coccinea. 

4. Pear H. (or Blackthorn). Downy, at least when young; leaves thickish, oval, ovate, or 

wedge-obovate, narrowed into a short or margined footstalk; flowers large; fruit large, crimson, or 
orange-red, eatable. C. tmientosa. 

5. Cockspur H. Smooth; leaves wedge-obovate or inversely lance-shaped, merely toothed above the 

middle, thick, shining; fruit dark red; thorns very long. C. Crus-gdlli. 

6. Summer H. Rather downy; leaves obovate or wedge-shaped, often cut; flowers few (2 to 6); 

fruit rather pear-shaped, yellowish or reddish. S. C. Jlava. 

Apple. Pyi'us , § Malus. 

1. Common Apple. Leaves ovate, serrate, downy beneath; flowers white tinged with pink. Every¬ 

where cultivated. P. Malus. 

2. Siberian Crab-A. Leaves ovate, serrate, smooth; calyx smooth. Cult, occasionally. P. baccata. 

3. American Crab-A. Leaves broadly ovate or heart-shaped, cut-toothed or somewhat lobed, 

smoothish; flowers rose-color, sweet-scented; fruit greenish, fragrant (Fig. 361). Common. W. 

P. coronaria. 


Mountain-Ash or RoAvan Tree. Pyrus, § Sorbus. 

Both the wild and the foreign species are planted for the beauty of their bright scarlet fruits, in broad 
compound cymes, ripe in autumn. FI. white, summer. 

1. American M. Leaflets 13 to 15, lance-shaped, taper-pointed, smooth. Wild, N. P. Americana. 

2. European M. Leaflets shorter, broader, paler, and not pointed; fruit larger. P. aucuparia. 

Quince. Cydonia. 

1. Common Quince. Flowers single at the tips of the branches, white; lobes of the calyx leaf-like 

and downy, as well as the ovate entire leaves; fruit pear-shaped. Cult. C. vulgaris. 

2. Japan Quince. Shrub, hardly of the same genus, for the flowers are on side spurs of the thorny 

branches, earlier than the smooth leaves; calyx top-shaped, with short lobes; petals large and red; 
fruit like a small apple, very hard. Cultivated for ornament. C. Japonica. 


152 


POPULAR FLORA. 


34. 

. small 


CAROLINA-ALLSPICE FAMILY. Order CALYCANTHACE^E. 
family of a few rather curious shrubs, with opposite leaves; represented by the 
Carolina-Allspice. Calycanthus. 

Flowers somewhat on the plan of the rose, having a large 
number of simple pistils contained in a sort of closed calyx-cup, 
or hollow receptacle, and attached to its inner surface. But the 
outside is covered with sepals or calyx-lobes, which are colored 
like the petals (brown-purple); these are many and narrow, in 
several rows. Stamens many, on the top of 
the cup; filaments hardly any; anthers long, 
tipped with a point. Ovaries making large 
akenes, enclosed in the large and dry hip. 
Seed-leaves of the embryo rolled up. Shrubs, 
with rather aromatic bark, &c., and opposite 
entire leaves, without any stipules. Flowers 
large, when bruised giving out a fragrance 
resembling that of strawberries. Wild in the 
Southern States, especially in and near the 
mountains; and also cultivated, especially the 
first species. 

362. Flowering branch of Carolina Allspice. 363. Half of 
a calyx-cup of Ihe same, cut through lengthwise. (Compare 
it with a Rose, Fig. 360.) 364. A ripe fruit or hip. 



1. Common C. Leaves oval or roundish, downy beneath. Commonly cult, in gardens. C. floridus. 

2. Smooth C. Leaves oblong, smooth, green both sides; flowers smaller. C. Icevigalus. 

3. Glaucous C. Leaves oblong- or lance-ovate, pointed, glaucous or whitened beneath. C. glaucus. 


35. LYTHRUM FAMILY. Order LYTHRACEiE. 

Herbs with entire and mostly opposite leaves, and no stipules; the calyx tubular or cup¬ 
shaped, bearing from 4 to 7 petals and 4 to 14 stamens on its throat, and enclosing the 
many-seeded ovary and thin pod. Between the 4 to 7 teeth of the calyx are as many 
additional projections or supernumerary teeth. Style one. 

Flowers regular, or nearly so. 

Calyx cylindrical, several-ribbed or angled: petals 4 to 7, rather unequal: stamens 

twice as many as the petals: pod 2-celled, (Lythrum) Lythrum.* 

Calyx short bell-shaped: petals 5: stamens 10 or 14, long and protruded: pod with 

3 to 5 cells: leaves often whorled, ( Nesdea ) Nesdea. 

Flowers with an irregular tubular calyx, spurred or projecting at the base on the upper 
side. Very unequal petals, and 12 unequal stamens in two sets. Pod few-seeded, 
bursting through one side of the calyx, ( Cuphea) Cuphea. 


* Sometimes called Loosestrife; but this name properly belongs to plants of another family. 

















POPULAR FLORA. 


153 


36. EVENING-PRIMROSE FAMILY. Order ONAGRACEJE. 

Herbs, or sometimes shrubs, known by having the parts of the blossom in fours, the tube 
of the calyx coherent with the 4-celled ovary, and often prolonged beyond, its summit 
bearing 4 petals, and 4 or 8 stamens. Style 1, slender: stigmas generally 4. In green¬ 
house cultivation we have several species of Fuchsia, well known for their pretty hanging 
flowers, the smaller kinds called Ladies’ Eardrop. The showy part is a colored (generally 
red) calyx, its 4 lobes longer than the purple petals. Fuchsias are shrubs; the rest of the 
family are herbs. Clarkia, known by the long-clawed petals, and broad petal-like stigmas, 
is sometimes cultivated, and so are several Evening-Primroses. The commonest wild 
plants of the family are Evening-Primroses and Willow-herbs. 

Evening-Primrose. (Enothera . 

Calyx with the tube continued on beyond the ovary, bearing 4 narrow lobes turned down, 4 gen¬ 
erally obcordate petals, and 8 stamens. — Several species are cultivated more or less commonly in 
flower-gardens. The following are common wild, and have yellow flowers, in summer. 

1. Common E. Tall; leaves lance-shaped; flowers in a spike, opening at sunset or in cloudy weather, 

sweet-scented; pod cylindrical; root biennial. Fields, &c. (E. biennis. 

2. Low E. Stems several from a perennial root, 1° to 3° high; flowers large, opening in sunshine; 

pods rather club-shaped, and 4-winged, stalked. W. & S. (E. fruticosa. 

3. Small E. Stems to 1° high; flowers small, p wide, open in sunshine; pods club-shaped, scarcely 

stalked, strongly 4-angled. Fields, &c. (E.pumila. 

Willow-herb. Epilbbium. 

Calyx with its tube not continued beyond the ovary. Petals 4, purple or whitish. Stamens 8. Pod 
long and slender, many-seeded; the seeds bearing a long tuft of downy hairs. 

1. Great W. Stem simple, 4° to 7° high; leaves lance-shaped; flowers showy, pink-purple, in a long 

loose spike; petals on claws, widely spreading; stamens and style turned down. Rich ground, 
especially where it has been burned over or newly cleared. E. angustifolium. 

2. Small W. Branching, 1° to 2° high; leaves lance-oblong, commonly purple-veined; flowers very 

small; petals purplish. Wet places, everywhere. E. coloralum. 

37. CACTUS FAMILY. Order CACTACEiE. 

Fleshy and generally prickly plants, without any leaves, except little scales or points, of 
very various and strange shapes, generally the petals and always the stamens very numer¬ 
ous, and on the one-celled ovary, which in fruit makes a berry. Being house-plants (with 
one exception) they must here be passed by, merely mentioning the 

Prickly-Pear Cactus, which grows in dry sandy or rocky places, southward, and consists of flat 
and rather leaf-like rounded joints of stem, growing one out of another, prickly at the buds, 
and bearing yellow flowers of rather few petals; the ovary making a large berry full of sweet and 
eatable pulp. Opuntia vulgaris. 


154 


POPULAR FLORA. 




38. GOURD FAMILY. Order CUCURBITACEJE. 

Succulent or tender herbs, with alternate and radiate- 
veined leaves, and with tendrils. Flowers commonly mo¬ 
noecious, in the axils. Fertile flowers with the tube of the 
calyx coherent with the ovary. Petals often united with 
each other into a monopetalous corolla, and united with or 
borne on the cup of the calyx. Stamens 
generally 3, and more or less connected 
by their anthers or their filaments, or by 
both; the anthers curiously contorted. 

Fruit a pepo (224), berry, or pod. Seeds 
large and flat; the whole kernel is an em¬ 
bryo. The most important plants of the 
family are those cultivated. 

366. Sfaminate flower of a Squash, with the corolla and upper part of the calyx cut away, to show the united stamens. 367. The latter, 
enlarged, and the mass of anthers cut across. 368. Separate stamen of a Melon, enlarged, showing the long and contorted anther. 369. 
Embryo of Squash. 370. Section of same, a little enlarged, seen edgewise. 

Petals united into a large, bell-shaped, 6-lobed, yellow corolla. Stamens with three fila¬ 
ments united into a tube, except at the bottom: the anthers also firmly grown 
together; the turns of their long cells parallel, running straight up and down. 

Style 1: stigmas 3, each 2-lobed. Fruit large, firm-fleshy. Seeds with a blunt 
edge, ( Cucurbita ) * Gourd, i. e. 

Petals united only at the base or separate. Anthers loosely crooked. [Squash and Pumpkin. 

Ovary and fruit many-seeded. Anthers and filaments 3, separate or separable. 

Petals white, with greenish veins. Peduncles very long. Fruit with a hard or 

woody rind variously shaped, * ( Lagenaria ) * Bottle-Gourd. 

Petals yellow. Calyx with a bell-shaped cup. Seeds pointed and sharp-edged. 

Fruit narrow, rough-pimpled when young, ( Cucumis scttivus ) ^Cucumber. 

Fruit thick, smooth, sweet. Fertile flowers perfect, ( Cucumis Melo) *Muskmelon. 

Petals buff or cream-color. Calyx with hardly any cup. Leaves much cut. 

Fruit large and smooth, sweet. Seeds thick-edged, smooth, ( Citrullus) ^Watermelon. 
Fruit a rough, reddish berry. Seeds wrinkled, ( Momordica ) ^Balsam-Apple. 

Ovary and fruit one-seeded or 4-seeded. Small-flowered climbers, wild in this country. 

Corolla of the sterile flowers 6-parted, white. The long racemes rather pretty in 
cultivation. Fruit an oval, weak-prickly, bladder-like pod, bursting 
at the top, and containing 2 fibrous-netted cells, with 2 large seeds in 
each. Leaves sharply 6-lobed, ( Echinocysiis) Bladder-Cucumber. 

Corolla of the wheel-shaped sterile flowers 5-lobed, greenish-white. Fruit a 

small, ovate, 1-seeded, prickly-barbed bur. Leaves 5-angled, ( Sicyos ) Bur-Cucumber. 

39. PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY. Order PASSIFLORACE^E. 

This small family of tendril-bearing vines, with alternate palmately-lobed leaves, is mainly 
represented by the 







POPULAR FLORA. 


155 


Passion-Flower. Passiflorct. 

Sepals 5, united at the base. Petals 5, accompanied by a crown or ring formed of a double or trii 
fringe, inserted on the base of the calyx. Stamens 5, mona- 
delphous; the filaments making a long sheath to the slender 
stalk of the ovary: this is one-celled and becomes an eata¬ 
ble berry, with many seeds in 3 or 4 rows on its walls. The 
species are mostly South American; and some large-flowered 
and handsome ones are cultivated in hot-houses. The early 
missionaries fancied that they found in these flowers emblems 
of the implements of our Saviour’s passion; the fringe repre¬ 
senting the crown of thorns; the large anthers fixed by their 
middle, hammers; and the 5 styles (tapering below and with 
large-headed stigmas), the nails. We have two wild species, 
common S. and W. 

1. Small P. Leaves bluntly 3-lobed, otherwise entire; flowers greenish-yellow, 1' wide. P. liitea. 

2. Maypop P. Leaves 3-cleft, the lobes serrate; flowers 2' broad, white, with a triple flesh-colored 

and purple crown; fruit like a hen’s egg in shape and size. P. incarnata. 

40. CURRANT FAMILY. Order GROSSULACEiE. 

Consists of the Currants 
and Gooseberries, which 
belong to the same botan¬ 
ical genus. Shrubs, with 
alternate rounded and ra¬ 
diate-veined leaves ; the 
tube of the calyx coherent 
with the one-celled ovary, 
and continued above it 
into a cup which is often 
colored, like a corolla, and 
bears the 5 little petals and 
5 stamens. Seeds many, 
with a pulpy outer coat, 
borne upon the walls of the 
berry on two thickened 
lines (parietal placentas). 

Garden Gooseberry : 372. with flowers ; 373. with fruit. 374. Cup of the calyx laid open, bearing the 5 little petals and stamens. 

375. The pistil. 376. Young berry cut across. 377. Young berry divided lengthwise. 

Gooseberry. Pibes, § Grossulciria. 

Stems generally armed with thorns under the clusters of leaves, and sometimes with scattered 
prickles. Peduncles bearing single or few flowers. 

11 




371. Passion-Flower No. 1, enlarged. 





156 


POPULAR FLORA. 


1. Garden Gooseberry. Thoms large; flower-stalks short ; berry bristly or smooth. R. Uva-crispa. 

2. Prickly Wild G. Thorns slender or none; flowers greenish, long-stalked; stamens and style not 

projecting; berry prickly; leaves downy. Woods, N. R. Cynosbati. 

3. Small Wild G. Thorns very short or none; flowers purplish or greenish, very short-stalked; sta¬ 

mens and 2-cleft style a little projecting; berry small, smooth. Low grounds, N. R. hirtellum. 

4. Smooth Wild G. Thorns stout or none; flowers greenish, on slender stalks; stamens and the two 

styles very long and projecting (£' long); berry smooth. Woods, common W. R. rotundifblium. 

Currant. Ribes. 

Stems neither thorny nor prickly. Flowers in racemes, appearing in early spring. Berries small. 

1. Red Currant. Leaves rounded heart-shaped and somewhat lobed; racemes from lateral separate 

buds, hanging; flowers flat, greenish or purplish; berry smooth, red, and a white variety. Gar¬ 
dens, &c. Wild on Mountains, N. R. rubrurn. 

2. Fetid C. Stems reclined; leaves deeply heart-shaped, 5-lobed; racemes erect; flowers greenish, 

flattish; pale red berry and its stalk bristly, strong-smelling. Cold woods,. N. R. prostratum. 

3. Wild Black C. Leaves on long foot-stalks, slightly heart-shaped, sharply lobed, sprinkled with 

dots both sides; racemes rather drooping; flowers oblong, yellowish-white; berries oblong, black, 
rather spicy. Wooded banks. R.jlondum. 

4. Garden Black C. Leaves on shorter footstalks, less dotted; racemes looser, and black berries 

larger than in No. 3. Gardens. R. nigrum. 

5. Missouri or Buffalo C. Leaves smooth; racemes with leafy bracts; flowers (calyx) long and 

tubular, bright yellow, spicy-fragrant. Cultivated for ornament. R. aiireum. 

41. STOTTECROP FAMILY. Order CRASSULACEJE. 

Herbs with thick and fleshy leaves (except in one pe¬ 
culiar plant of the family, viz. the Ditchwort) ; the flowers 
remarkable for being perfectly regular and symmetrical 
throughout, i. e. having the sepals, petals, and pistils all of 
the same number and all separate, or nearly so (except 
in Ditchwort); the stamens also of the same number, or 
just twice as many. Pods containing few or many seeds. 

Mostly small plants : several are found in gardens. 

378. Flower of Stonecrop. 

Flowers with petals, and their pistils entirely separate from each other. 

Sepals, narrow petals, and pistils 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10, ( Sedum ) Stonecrop. 

Sepals, petals, and pistils 6 to 20. Stamens 12 to 40, ( Sempervivum ) Houseleek. 

Flowers with 5 sepals, no petals, and 5 pistils grown together below. Leaves thin, lance¬ 
shaped, ( Penthorum ) Ditchwort. 

Stonecrop or Orpine. Sedum. 

1. Mossy Stonecrop. Small and creeping, moss-like; the stems thickly covered with little ovate 
thick and closely sessile leaves; flowers yellow. Cultivated for garden edging, &c. S. acre. 



POPULAR FLORA. 


157 


2. Three-leaved S. Stems spreading, 3 ( to 8' high; leaves wedge-obovate or oblong, the lower ones 

in whorls of 3; the earliest flower with the parts in fives, the rest generally in fours; petals white. 

Rocky woods, S. and W. and in gardens. S. ternatum. 

3. Handsome S. Stems 4' to 12'high; leaves thread-shaped; flowers crowded; petals rose-purple. 

Rocky places, S. W. and cultivated. & pulchellum. 

4. Great S. or Live-for-ever. Stems 2° high; leaves oval; flowers in a close compound cyme, 

purple. Gardens. S. Telephium. 

42. SAXIFRAGE FAMILY. Order SAXIFRAGACEiE. 

Herbs, or in the case of Hydrangea, &c. shrubs, differing from the last in having the 
pistils fewer than the petals, and generally more or less united with each other and with 
the tube of the calyx. Petals 5 (rarely 4), on the calyx. Stamens 5 or 10, or in Mock- 
Orange many. 

Herbs. Leaves generally alternate. Petals 5. Styles only 2. 

Stamens 10, short. Petals entire. Calyx deeply 5-cleft. Pod 2-beaked or pods 2, 

many-seeded, ( Scixifraga ) Saxifrage. 

Stamens 5. Petals small, entire (greenish or purplish), between the short lobes of the 
bell-shaped calyx. Pod 1-celled, 2-beaked, many-seeded. Flowers in a long 
panicle, ( Heiichera ) Alum-root. 

Stamens 10, short. Petals pinnatifid, whitish, slender. Styles and pod short, one- 
celled, the latter few-seeded at the bottom, opening across the top. Stem 
2-leaved below the slender raceme, ( Mitella ) Mitre wort. 

Stamens 10, and the 2 styles much longer than the slender-clawed petals. Pod slen¬ 
der, few-seeded at the bottom? Flowers white in a short raceme on a 
naked scape, ( Tiarellci) False-Mitrewort. 

Shrubs. Leaves opposite. Tube of the calyx coherent with the ovary. Seeds many. 

Flowers small, in compound cymes; some of the marginal ones generally large and 
neutral (Fig. 169), or in cultivation nearly all the flowers becoming so. 

Petals 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10. Styles 2, diverging, and between them the 

little pod opens, ( Hydrangea ) Hydrangea. 

Flowers large, somewhat panicled. Petals 4 or 5, white, showy. Stamens 20 or 
more. Styles 3 to 5, united below: pod with as many cells, very many- 
seeded, ( Philadclphus ) Mock-Orange. 


Saxifrage. Scixifraga. 

1. Early Saxifrage. Leaves all clustered at the root, obovate, toothed; -scape 4' to 9' high, many- 

flowered ; flowers white, in early spring. Damp rocks. S. Virginiensis. 

2. Swamp S. Leaves all at the root, lance-oblong, 3' to 8' long; scape 1° or 2° high, clammy, bearing 

many small clustered greenish flowers. Bogs and wet ground, N. S. Pennsylvania. 

Hydrangea. Hydrangea. 

1. Garden Hydrangea. Leaves very smooth; flowers mostly large neutral ones, blue, purple, or 

pink. A well-known garden and house plant. H. Ilortensia. 

2. Wild H. Leaves thin, nearly smooth, sometimes heart-shaped; flowers mostly perfect, white. 

H. arborescens. 


158 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Mock-Orange (or Syringa). Philadelphus. 

1. Common M. or Syringa. Flowers cream-colored, fragrant, in large panicles; styles separate. 

Cultivated. P. coronarius. 

2. Scentless M. Flowers larger and later than in the first, few on the spreading branchlets, pure 

white. Cultivated; also wild S. Leaves tasting like cucumbers. P. inoddrus . 

43. PARSLEY FAMILY. Order UMBELLIFERiE. 

Herbs with small flowers in compound umbels, the 5 petals and 5 stamens on the top of 
the ovary, with which the calyx is so incorporated that it is not apparent, except some¬ 
times by 5 minute teeth. Styles 2. Fruit dry, 2-seecled, splitting when ripe into two 
akenes. Stems hollow. Leaves generally compound, decompound, or much cut. Some 
species are aromatic, having a volatile oil in the seeds: most, but not all, of these are 
harmless. Others contain a deadly poison in the roots and leaves. The deadly poisonous 
sorts are marked f : the most deadly is the Water-Hemlock , also called Musquash-root , and 
Beaver-Poison. — The kinds in this large family are known by their fruit, and are too 
difficult for the beginner. The principal common kinds are merely enumerated in the fol¬ 
lowing key. (Fig. 148 shows the compound umbel in Caraway, a good and familiar 
example of the family.) 


382 381 380 



383 379 384 

379. Part of Stem, leaf, umbel, &c. of Poison-Hemlock. 380. A separate umbellet. 381. A flower magnified. 382. A fruit. 383. Lower 
half of it cut off*. 384. Fruit of Sweet Cicely ; the two long akenes separating. 











POPULAR FLORA. 


159 


Seeds flat on the inner face, where the two akenes or parts of the fruit join. 

Fruit covered all over with hooked prickles, 

Fruit prickly on the ribs only. Umbel becoming concave, 

Fruit not prickly, but winged on the margin. 

Flowers yellow, all alike, 

Flowers white, the outer corollas larger, 

Flowers white or whitish, all alike. 

Akenes 5-ribbed on the back. Leaves simply pinnate, 

Akenes 8 -ribbed on the back. Leaves decompound, 

Fruit not prickly, winged on all sides, 

Fruit neither prickly nor winged. 

Flowers yellow. Plant sweet-aromatic; leaflets long and slender, 

Flowers white. 

^ Umbels with neither involucre nor involucels. 

Divisions of the leaves very slender, 

Divisions or leaflets wedge-shaped, 

Umbels with 3-leaved involucels, but no involucre, 

Umbels with both involucres and involucels. 

Leaves decompound, finely divided, ( Petroseftmm ) ^Parsley. 

Leaves 2 or 3 times compound; leaflets coarse, ( Ciciita) Water-Hemlock.-} - 

Leaves simply pinnate, ( Slum ) Water-Parsnip. - }- 

Seed grooved or hollowed down the whole length of the inner face. (Flowers white.) 

Herbage rather unpleasant-scented: leaves decompound, finely cut, ( Conium ) Poison-Hemlock. f 
Herbage, fruit, &c. sweet-scented. 

Fruit narrow-oblong, ribbed, ( Ckcerophyllum) Chervil. 

Fruit long, tapering downwards, ( Osmorrhiza) Sweet-Cicely. 

Seed and fruit curved in at the top and bottom, or kidney-shaped, strong-scented. 

Flowers white, ( Coriandrum) * Coriander. 


( Sanicula ) Sanicle. 
( Daucus ) * Carrot. 

( Pastinaca ) ^Parsnip. 
( Heracleum ) Cow-Parsnip. 

( Archemora ) CowBANE.f 
( Angelica ) * Angelica. 
( Levisticum ) *Lovage. 

(Fceniculum) * Fennel. 


( Carum ) ^Caraway. 
{Apium) ^Celery. 
{jEthusa) Fool’s-Parsley. 


44. ARALIA FAMILY. Order ARALIACEJE. 

Much like the last, but often shrubs or trees; the styles almost always more than two, 
and the fruit becoming berry-like. Also the umbels are not regularly compound, but 
either simple or panicled. Flowers often polygamous. Here belongs the true or English 
Ivy, with evergreen simple leaves, which thrives in some places in northern exposures 5 
also the following wild plants. 

Aralia. Aralia. 

Petals, stamens, and styles 5. Flowers white or greenish in summer. Berries black. Herbage, roots, 
&c. aromatic. Leaves compound or decompound, large. 

1. Prickly A. or Angelica-tree. Shrub or low tree with a stout simple stem, very prickly; 

leaves very large; leaflets ovate; umbels many in a large panicle. S. and cult. A. spinosa. 

2 . Bristly A. Stem 1° high, bristly below, woody at the base; leaves twice pinnate; umbels few, 

corymbed. Rocky woods. N. A. hispida. 

3. Spikenard A. A stout spreading herb; with thick sweet-spicy roots; leaves very large and de¬ 

compound ; leaflets somewhat heart-shaped; umbels many, panicled. Rich woods. A. racemdsa. 


160 


POPULAR FLORA. 


4. Sarsaparilla A. Roots very long and slender, horizontal (used as a substitute for sarsaparilla); 
the compound long-stalked leaf, and the naked flower-stalk bearing few umbels, rising separately 
from the ground. Moist woods. A. nudicaulis. 

Ginseng. Aralia , § Ginseng. 

Styles 2 or 3. Flowers white. Berries red or reddish when ripe. Low herbs with simple stems, 
bearing at the top a whorl of leaves and one long-stalked umbel. 

1. True Ginseng. Root long and large, warm-aromatic; leaflets 5. Rich woods, N. A. quinquefolia. 

2. Dwarf G. (or Groundnut). Root round, sharp-tasted; leaflets 3 or 5; stem 4' to 6' high. Damp 

woods, N. FI. spring. A. trifolia. 

45. CORNEL FAMILY. Order CORNACE^E. 

Shrubs or trees (except our Dwarf Cornel), the calyx coherent with the ovary, which 
makes a berry-like stone-fruit; represented (except 
by the Tupelo or Pepperidge-tree, Nyssa , here 
omitted) only by the genus 

1. Cornel (or Dogwood). Cornus. 

Petals 4 and stamens 4, on the ovary. Teeth of the calyx 
4, very small. Style 1. Ovary 2-celled, in fruit berry-like 
with a 2-seeded stone. Leaves entire, opposite, except in 
No. 7. Flowers in spring or early summer. 

* Flowers greenish, in a head, which is surrounded by a 
4-leaved involucre resembling a large white corolla ; 
fruit bright red. 

1. Dwarf Cornel (or Bunchberry). Herb low, with 4 

or 6 leaves near the top. Damp woods. C. Canadensis. 

2. Flowering C. or Dogwood. Tree; leaves of the co- 

rolla-like involucre obcordate. C. fiorida. 

* * Flowers white, in flat and open cymes: shrubs 

3. Round-leaved C. Branches greenish, warty-dotted ; 

leaves round-oval, woolly beneath ; fruit pale blue. 

Woods. C. circinata. 

4. Silky C. Branches purple ; young stalks and lower 

side of the ovate or oblong leaves silky woolly; fruit 
pale blue. Swamps. C. serxcea. 

5. Red-Osier C. Branches red-purple; leaves ovate, smooth, white and roughish beneath; fruit 

white. Wet banks of streams. C. stolonifera. 

6. Panicled C. Branches gray; leaves lance-ovate; cymes convex; fruit white. C.yaniculata. 

7. Alternate-leaved C. Branches greenish streaked with white; leaves crowded at the ends of 

the shoots, but alternate; leaves pointed; fruit bright blue. Hill-sides. C. alternifblia. 



385. Dwarf Cornel. 386. A separate flower 
enlarged. 387. A fruit cut across. 



POPULAR FLORA. 


161 


II. Monopetalous Division. 


46. HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY. Order CAPREFOLIACEiE. 


Shrubs or woody twiners (or one or two are herbs), distinguished by having a mono- 
petalous corolla bearing the 4 or 5 stamens, and borne on the ovary, and the leaves opposite 
without stipules. 



388. Flower of Trumpet-Honeysuckle. 389. Small-flowered Honeysuckle. 390. A separate flower. 391. An ovary divided 
lengthwise, and magnified. 392. Flowers, &c. of Fly-Honeysuckle, No. 11. 


Herb creeping: the naked flower-stalk forking and bearing two sweet-scented, drooping, 
pretty flowers, with a 5-lobed and purple-tinged corolla hairy inside, but 
the stamens only 4, (Linncea) Twinflower. 

Shrubs or woody vines. Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla, 4 or 5. 

Style one, slender: stigma one. 

Corolla elongated, mostly irregular. Berry several-seeded, ( Lonicera ) Honeysuckle. 

Corolla elongated, nearly regular. Pod many-seeded, ( Diervilla ) Bush-Honeysuckle. 
Corolla short bell-shaped, regular. Berry 2-seeded, ( Symphoricdrpus) Snowberry. 

- Stjde hardly any: stigmas generally 3: corolla very short and open, 5-cleffc, regular. 

Flowers small, white, very many, in compound cymes. 

Leaves pinnate. Berry 3-seeded, 

Leaves simple. Fruit berry-like with one flat stone, 


( Sambucus ) Elder. 
( Wfournum) Viburnum. 















162 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Honeysuckle. Lonicera. 

Teeth of the calyx very short. Corolla tubular below, irregular and 2-lipped, four lobes belonging 
to one lip and one to the other, except in No. 1. 

§ 1. Twining woody plants: flowers long, crowded in little heads at the end of the branches, or in ses¬ 
sile v/horls in the axils of the uppermost leaves. 

'* Corolla long and narrow, appearing regular, the 5 short lobes nearly equal. 

1 . Trumpet H. Uppermost pair of leaves united into one rounded body; corolla red, yellowish inside 

(also a yellow variety), scentless. Wild S. and cultivated. L. sempervirens. 

* * Corolla 2 -lipped: uppermost leaves on the flowering branches united round the stem into one flat 

or cup-shaped body, except in No. 2. 

2 . Common H. or Woodbine. Leaves all separate ; flowers purple-red outside, large, sweet-scented; 

berries red. Cultivated; as also the next. L. Periclymenum. 

3. Italian H. Leaves glaucous; flowers blush-colored, sweet-scented; berries yellow. L. Caprifolium. 

4. WU|D Sweet-H. Flowers smaller; otherwise nearly as in No. 3. S. and cultivated. L. grata. 

5. Wild Yellow-H. Leaves thick, very glaucous both sides; several pairs united, flowers pale yel¬ 

low ; the tube rather long. W. and S. L. jlava. 

6 . Small-fl. H. Leaves glaucous; flowers small, yellowish and purplish or crimson. L. parviflbra. 

7. Hairy H. Leaves, &c. hairy, dull green, not glaucous; flowers clammy, orange. N. L. hirsuta. 

§ 2. Twining: leaves all separate, a pair of flowers in the axil of some of them, on a short 2-leaved foot¬ 
stalk. Cult, from Japan and China. 

8 . Japan H. Slender, hairy; corolla deeply 2 -lipped, reddish outside, white inside, sweet. L.Japonica. 

§ 3. Upright bushes: leaves all separate; flowers two on an axillary peduncle; their two ovaries often 
united at the base or into a double berry (Fig. 392): corolla short, irregular. 

9. Tartarian H. Very smooth ; leaves somewhat heart-shaped ; flowers rose-color, handsome, in 

spring. Cultivated for ornament. L. Tartdrica. 

10. Fly H. Leaves petioled, ovate or heart-shaped, thin, a little hairy below and on the margins; 

corolla almost equally 5-lobed, greenish-yellow; ovaries separate. Woods, N. L. cilicita. 

11. Swamp Fly-H. Leaves sessile, oblong; peduncles long; corolla deeply 2-lipped, whitish. In 

swamps, N. L. oblongifolia. 

Elder. Sambiicus. 

1 . Common Elder. Leaflets 7 to 11, smooth; cymes flat; berries dark purple. S. Canadensis. 

2. Red-berried E. Stems more woody; leaflets 5 or 7, downy beneath; cymes convex or pyramid¬ 

like ; berries bright red. Cold woods, N.; fl. spring. S. pubcns. 

Viburnum. Viburnum. 

Shrubs or small trees, which have a variety of names. Leaves simple. Cymes flat: Fruit berry-like, 
with one flat stone. To the genus belongs the Laurestinus, cultivated in houses. All the following 
are wild in this country; but a variety of No. 6 is well known as a cultivated ornamental shrub. 
Flowering in spring or early summer. 

* Flowers all alike, small and perfect: fruit blue or black. 

1 . Naked V. or Wythe-rod. Leaves thickish, entire, or wavy-toothed. Swamps, N. V. nudum. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


163 


2 . Sweet V. or Sheep-berry. Leaves ovate, pointed, very sharply serrate, on long and margined 

footstalks; cymes sessile; fruit rather large, eatable. A small tree. V. Lentago. 

3. Black-Haw V. Leaves oval, blunt, shining; otherwise like No. 2. S. and W. V.prunifolium. 

4. Arrow-wood V. Leaves round-ovate, coarsely toothed, strongly marked with straight veins, 

smooth; cymes small, stalked; fruit small, bright blue. Shrub, in wet places. V. dentatum. 

5. Maple-leaved V. or Dockmackie. Leaves roundish and with 3 pointed lobes, coarsely toothed, 

downy beneath; cymes long-stalked. Rocky woods: a shrub. * V. acerifblium. 

* * Flowers at the margin of the cyme neutral, consisting merely of a large and flat corolla, white 

(just as in Hydrangea, p. 69, and Fig. 169.) 

6. Snowball Y. or Cranberry-tree. Leaves with 3 pointed lobes, smooth ; fruit red, sour. 

Swamps, N. — The Snowball-tree or Guelder-Rose is a cultivated state of this, with all the 
flowers become neutral. V. Opulus. 

7. Hobblebush Y. Branches long and spreading, often taking root; leaves large, round-ovate or 

heart-shaped, many-veined, scurfy beneath; cyme sessile, very broad; fruit red, turning puckish. 
Damp woods, N. V. lantanovdes. 

47. MADDER FAMILY. Order RUBIACEJE. 

Well distinguished by its regular monopetalous corolla, bearing 4 or 5 stamens alternate 
with its lobes, and itself borne on the ovary (the calyx being coherent); and the leaves 
in whorls, or else opposite and with stipules between them. 

391 399 



393. Piece of Madder, in flower. 394. Half of a flower, magnified. 395. Young fruits. 396. Ripe fruit. 

337. Common Bluets. 398. Section of a flower lengthwise, magnified, and the corolla laid open. 399. Corolla of another flower laid 
open, and the style. 











164 


POPULAR FLORA. 


1. Leaves in whorls. Ovary 2-celled, separating in the ripe fruit into two closed and one-seeded pieces: 

teeth or limb of the calyx small or hardly to be discerned. 

Stamens 5 and the corolla 5-parted. Fruit berry-like when ripe, (Rubia) *Madder. 

Stamens and divisions of the wheel-shaped corolla 4, rarely 3. Fruit a pair of dry or 
fleshy akenes, smooth in some species, in others rough, in others beset with 
hooked prickles, making little burs, ( Galium) Bedstraw. 

2. Leaves opposite, and with stipules, either as little scales or forming a small sheath. 

Shrub: flowers (white) many in a close round head (Fig. 145), ( Cephaldnthus) Buttonbush. 

Small herbs. (Corolla 4-lobed.) 

Flowers twin, on one ovary, which makes a double-eyed red berry. Small creeping 

evergreen, with round leaves. Corolla bearded inside. (Mitchella ) Partridge-berry. 
Flowers separate, peduncled. Fruit a dry pod. Stems erect. ( Oldenlandia, § Houstonia) Bluets. 

48. VALERIAN FAMILY. Order VALERIANACEiE. 

Herbs, with strong-scented roots, opposite leaves, and no stipules, a 5-lobed monopetalous 
corolla bearing only 2 or 3 stamens, and borne on the ovary, which makes a small one- 
seeded dry fruit. Flowers small, in cymes or clusters, white or purplish. 

Limb of the calyx crowning the fruit in the form of feathery bristles, ( Valeriana) ^Valerian. 
Limb of the calyx only one or more blunt teeth, ( F'edia) Lamb-Lettuce. 

49. TEASEL FAMILY. Order DIPSACEA3. 

Herbs, with opposite leaves, no stipules, and perfect flowers in dense heads, surrounded 
by an involucre, and with a chaffy bract under each blossom. Corolla tubular or funnel- 
form, with 4 or 5 lobes, bearing 4 stamens, and itself borne on the ovary, which becomes an 
akene in fruit, containing one hanging seed. 

Flowers in a rough-chaffy head: calyx cup-shaped, short: lobes of the corolla 4. Stem 

and leaves rough or prickly, ( Dipsacus) Teasel. 

Flowers larger than the chaff: calyx with long-awned or bristle-shaped lobes: lobes of the 

corolla 4 or 5, unequal, ( Scabiosa ) ^Scabious. 

50. COMPOSITE or SUNFLOWER FAMILY. Order COMPOSITE. 

Known by having what were called compound flowers , which are really a number of 
flowers closely crowded into a head, and this surrounded by an in¬ 
volucre which was taken for a calyx. The Scabious has its flowers 
in such heads. But the distinguishing mark of the present family 
is that its five stamens are united by their anthers, or syngene- 
sious. Fig. 400 shows the stamens, their anthers connected into 
a tube, through which the style passes. Fig. 401 shows this tube 
split down on one side and spread open flat. What gives the 
whole head so much the appearance of one large blossom is, that, 



400 





















POPULAR FLORA. 


165 


in most cases, these flowers have a strap-shaped corolla. This will be understood by sup¬ 
posing a long tubular corolla to be split down on one side and spread out flat. In the 
Cichory (Fig. 402), Dandelion, and the like, all the flowers are strap-shaped. But in Sun¬ 
flower, Coreopsis (Fig. 404), 
Aster, and many others, only 
the flowers round the margin 
are strap-shaped ; these are 
called rays or ray-flowers, and 
at first view much resemble 
the petals of a 

blossom, — all the more so, be¬ 
cause in Coreopsis and Sun¬ 
flower these ray-flowers are 
neutral , having neither sta¬ 
mens nor pistils. But in As¬ 
ters and Daisies, they are pis¬ 
tillate, having a pistil only. 
The blossoms, which in these 
cases fill the body of the head, 
and are so small that the su¬ 
perficial observer is apt to 
take them for stamens or pis¬ 
tils, are regular and perfect, with a tubular and 5-lobed corolla (Fig. 405 a ). They are 
called disk-flowers. In Thistles, Thoroughwort, Wormwood, and some kinds of Ground¬ 
sel, all the flowers are 
of this sort, i. e. there 
are no rays, but all 
the flowers tubular. 

In all, the ovary is 
one-celled and one 
seeded, and makes an 
akene in fruit. The 
corolla being on the 
ovary, the latter is of 
course covered by the 403 ‘ Head of Cicl,or y- flowers - divicled 'engtWise and enlarged. 

tube of the calyx adherent to it. Sometimes there is no limb or border to the calyx; 
then the akene is naked, as in that of Mayweed (Fig. 406). When the limb of the calyx 
is present in any form on the ovary or akene, it is named the pappus (which means seed- 
down). In Cichory the pappus or calyx is a ring or cup crowning the akene (Fig. 407) ; 
in Sunflower it consists of two chaffy scales, which fall off early (Fig. 408); in Helenium 



many-petalled 






















166 


POPULAR FLORA. 


there are five chaffy and pointed scales (Fig. 409). But more commonly the pappus con¬ 
sists of bristles, or downy hairs (as its name denotes). Asters, Groundsels, and especially 

Thistles, afford most familiar examples of such a 
hairy or downy pappus; those of Thistles, &c. 
in autumn sailing about in every breeze. Fig. 
411 shows the very soft downy pappus of Sow- 
Thistle. Fig. 410, that of the Dandelion; this is 
raised upon a long beak to the akene, which 
lengthens greatly after flowering. 

This family contains about an eighth or tenth 
part of all Flowering plants. But it is too diffi- 
404 . Half of a head of flowers of Coreopsis. cult for the beginner. So we here barely men¬ 

tion a few of the common plants which belong to it. 




Ray-flower, 

neutral. 


405. Slice of the same, enlarged, with one ray-flower, and part of another, and one perfect disk-flower (a), with its bract or chaff (6). 

1 . Among those which have no rays, or strap-shaped corollas, are Thistles, Burdock , 
Everlasting and Cudweed , Wormwood, Thoroughwort or 
Eupatorium, Button-Snakeroot, and Ironweed. 

2 . With rays or strap-shaped corollas at the margin 
(either neutral or pistillate), and tubular flowers in the 
centre; Coltsfoot, Aster, Fleabane, Daisy, Golden-rod, 

Sunflower, Coreopsis, Mayweed, Chamomile, $fc. 

3. With all the flowers strap-shaped and perfect (and 




in tills division the plants have a milky juice): Cichory or Succory (Fig. 402), Salsify, 
Hawkweed, Sow-thistle, Dandelion, and Lettuce. 



























POPULAR FLORA. 


167 


51. LOBELIA FAMILY. Order LOBELIACEiE. 

Herbs with milky (acrid-poisonous) juice, alternate leaves, and scattered flowers, the 
stamens free from the peculiarly irregular corolla, which is split down on one side (Fig. 
184), and borne with it on the many-seeded ovary. We have only one genus, viz.: — 

Lobelia. Lobelia. 

Calyx with its short tube adherent to the 2-celled ovary, and with 5 slender teeth or lobes. Corolla 
unequally 5-lobed, and split down to the bottom on the upper side! Stamens 5, united into a tube both 
by their filaments and their anthers! Style one. Pod opening at the top. The following are the 
commonest wild species (all but Nos. 3 and 4 in low grounds); fl. summer and fall. 

1. Cardinal-flower L. Tall, smooth, with a raceme of large, brilliant red flowers. L. cardinalis. 

2. Great Blue L. Rather hairy, 1° or 2° high; leaves lance-oblong; flowers 1' long, crowded in a 

leafy raceme, light blue. L. syphilitica. 

3. Spiked L. Stem simple, straight, and slender, 1° to 3° high, including the long and naked spike¬ 

like raceme of small pale-blue flowers; lowest leaves obovate or oblong. L. spicata. 

4. Indian-Tobacco L. Branching, 8' to 18' high; leaves ovate-oblong; flowers very small, in irregular 

leafy racemes, pale blue; pods inflated. Open places. L. inflata. 

52. CAMPANULA FAMILY. Order CAMPANULACEiE. 

Like the last family in all general respects, except that the 
showy corolla is regular, 5-lobed; the 5 stamens separate; the 
stigmas and the cells of the pod 3 'or 5. Juice milky. The 
principal genus is 

Campanula or Bellflower. Campanula. 

So called from its generally campanulate or bell-shaped corolla (Fig. 

179 and 412). The following are the commonest species. 

* Wild species: stigmas and cells of the pods 3. 

1. Harebell C. A slender and very pretty plant, growing on shaded 

cliffs, 5' to 12' high; root-leaves round or heart-shaped, long-stalked, 
toothed; stem-leaves very narrow, entire ; flowers nodding, the 
bright blue corolla bell-shaped, or more long. C. rotundifolia. 

2. Marsh C. A slender plant growing among grass, in wet places, with 

rough-angled stem and lance-shaped leaves ; a few small pale 
flowers on diverging peduncles. C. aparinoides. 

3. Tall C. Stem tall, leafy, ending in a leafy loose spike (1° or 2° 

long) of blue flowers; corolla wheel-shaped; style long and curved. 

Rich low ground. C. Americana. 

* * Garden species: stigmas and cells of the pod 5. 

4. Canterbury Bells. Hairy, with stout stems, very large blue (or white) flowers, and broad 

appendages of the calyx covering the pod. C. Medium. 



168 


POPULAR FLORA. 


53. HEATH FAMILY. Order ERICACEAE. 


Distinguished generally by the anthers opening by a pore or small hole at the top of each 
cell, and from all the other orders with a monopetalous corolla, except the two foregoing, 
by having the stamens free from the corolla, as many or twice as many as its lobes. But 
the petals are sometimes entirely separate, especially in the third and fourth sub-families. 
Fruit several-celled. Style one. This large order comprises four very distinct sub-fami- 



413 


I. HUCKLEBERRY Subfamily. Teeth of the calyx, corolla, and stamens on the ovary, the tube 
of the calyx coherent with its surface. Style and stigma one. Anthers of two nearly separate cells, 
tapering upwards into a tube or tip, which opens at the end. Shrubs, &c. 

Ovary 10-celled with one ovule in each cell; berry with 10 largish seeds, or rather stones, 

in a circle, ( Gaylussacia ) Huckleberry. 
















POPULAR FLORA. 


169 


Ovary with many ovules in each cell, making small seeds. 

Stamens 10, rarely 8, included in the cylindrical or cblong-bell-shaped 5-toothed 

corolla. Berry blue or black, sweet, many-seeded, ( Vaccinium) Blueberry. 

Stamens 10, longer than the open bell-shaped 5-cleft corolla. Berry ripening few 

seeds, mawkish, ( Vaccinium stamineum) Deerberry. 

Stamens 8, much projecting beyond the deeply 4-parted reflexed corolla. Berry 

4-celled, many-seeded, red, sour, ( Vaccinium , § Oxycoccus) Cranberry. 


II. HEATH Subfamily. Calyx, corolla (generally monopetalous), and stamens free from the 
ovary, inserted on the receptacle. Shrubby plants (except Checkerberry), sometimes small trees. 

1. Corolla remaining dry after blossoming. Stems covered with very small and narrow 

leaves. Only house-plants in this country, (Erica) * Heath. 

2. Corolla falling off after blossoming. 

Fruit a berry or berry-like. 

Trailing small-leaved evergreen. Corolla roundish, ( Arctostaphylos ) Bearberry. 

Fruit a dry pod enclosed in a berry-like calyx, ( Gaultheria ) Checkerberry.* 

Fruit a naked dry pod. 

Corolla salver-shaped, with a slender tube. A trailing, scarcely woody ever- 


(Epiacea ) May-flower.! 
(Andromeda) Andromeda. 

( Clethra) Sweet-Pepperbush. 
(Ledum) Labrador-Tea. 


green, with round-heart-shaped leaves, 

Corolla ovate or oblong-cylindrical, 5-toothed, 

Corolla of 5 separate petals, regular, white. 

Flowers in panicled racemes, appearing in summer, 

Flowers in umbels. Leaves rusty-woolly beneath, 

Flowers irregular, rose-purple, two of the petals nearly separate, (Rhodara) Rhodora. 
Flowers bell-wheel-shaped, 5-lebed, with 10 pouches, (Kdlmia) American Laurel. 

Flowers bell-shaped or short funnel-shaped without pouches, 5-lobed. 

Stamens 10. Leaves evergreen, (Rhododendron) Rhododendron. 

Stamens 5. Leaves falling in autumn, (Azalea) Azalea. 


III. WINTERGREEN or PYROLA Subfamily. Calyx, &c. free from the ovary; the 5 separate 
petals and 10 stamens on the receptacle. Low and herbaceous, or nearly so, and with evergreen leaves. 
Flowers in a raceme. Petals not widely spreading. Style long, (Pyrola) Wintergreen. 

Flowers in a general corymb or umbel, or only one or two. Style very short, ( Chimdphila) Pipsissewa. 


IV. INDIAN-PIPE Subfamily. Low herbs growing in leaf-mould in woods, destitute of green 
foliage (parasitic on roots), having white or flesh-colored scales in place of leaves. 

Flower one, nodding at first. Calyx of 2 to 4 scales : petals of 5 spatulate scales : 

stamens 10, (Monotropa) Indian-Pipe. 

Flowers several in a scaly raceme; the terminal blossom with 5 petals and 10 stamens, 

all the others with only 4 petals and 8 stamens, (Hypopitys) Pinesap. 


* Called Wintergreen in the country in most places; also Boxberry or Partridge-berry; but 
the latter name rightly belongs to Mitchella , and that of Wintergreen to Pyrola , which is so named in 
England. 

f Also called Trailing-Arbutus and Ground-Laurel. Nearly the earliest-flowering plant in the 
Northern States, prized for the rich spicy fragrance of its pretty rose-colored blossoms. 



170 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Huckleberry. Gaylussacia. 

Differing from Blueberries in the rather spicy and sweet berry having 10 large seeds, or rather 
small stones. The foliage and young shoots in the common species are sprinkled with waxy or sticky 
dots. Flowers purplish in racemes. 

1. Black or Common H. Branches, leaves, &c. clammy when young; racemes and pedicels short; 

fruit black, without any bloom. Very common, furnishing the principal huckleberries of the 
market, ripe late in summer. G. resinosa. 

2. Pale H. or Blue-Tangle. Leaves and fruit glaucous; pedicels long and drooping. G.frondbsa. 

3. Dwarf H. Branches rather hairy ; leaves thickish and shining ; racemes long, with leaf-like 

bracts. E. near the coast. G. dumosa. 

Blueberry. Vaccinium. 


Flowers white or tinged with pink, in short clusters, rather earlier than the leaves. Berries blue or 
black, and generally with a bloom, many-seeded. Leaves deciduous. 

1. Common Blueberry. Stem 5° to 10° high; leaves ovate, oval, or oblong. Swamps. V. corymbosum. 

2. Low B. Stems 1° high, and obovate or oval glaucous leaves smooth. V. vacillans. 

3. Dwarf B. Stems i° to 1° high, smooth, leaves lance-oblong, fringed with fine bristle-pointed teeth, 

smooth, shining both sides. Dry woods, &c. This is the earliest blueberry or blue huckleberry 
in the market. V. Pennsylvanicum. 

4. Canada B. Stems 1° or 2° high; branchlets and lance-oblong leaves downy: otherwise much like 

the last. N. V. Canadense. 

Cranberry. Vaccinium , § Oxycoccus. 

Slender, almost herbaceous, creeping or trailing, growing in bogs, with their small leaves rather 
crowded, entire, thickish, and evergreen, whitened beneath. Flowers single, nodding on the summit of 
a slender stalk, pale rose-colored, the corolla almost divided into 4 long and narrow petals turned back. 
Berries ripe in autumn. 


1. Large Cranberry. Stems 1° to 3° long; leaves oblong, blunt, nearly flat, almost V long; berries 

V to 1' long, deep red (the principal cranberry of the market). V. macrocdrpon. 

2. Small Cranberry. Stems hardly 1° long; leaves ovate, acute, not half as large as those of No. 1, 

the margins more rolled back; berries much smaller, often speckled. N. and in mountain bogs. 

V. Oxycoccus. 

Kalmia or American Laurel. Kalmia. 


Flowers (in early summer) showy, in corymbs or umbels: an anther is at first lodged in each of the 
10 pouches of the corolla. Leaves evergreen, very smooth. 

1. Mountain L. or K. Leaves lance-ovate, bright green both sides; flowers large, pale or deep rose- 

color, in terminal corymbs; pedicels, &c. clammy. Stems 4° to 10° high. K. latifolia. 

2. Sheep L. or Lambkill. Leaves lance-oblong, blunt, pale beneath, petioled, mostly opposite, 

flowers small, purple; the corymbs becoming lateral; shrub 1° or 2° high. K. angustifolia. 

3. Pale L. Leaves oblong, sessile, opposite, white-glaucous beneath; flowers few, large, lilac-purple. 

Swamps, N. K. glauca. 

Rhododendron (or Rose-Bay). Rhododendron. 

Calyx veiy small or obscure. Corolla large, 6-lobed. Stamens 10, more or less bent to one side, 
slender. Shrubs or low trees, with evergreen leaves and a corymb or umbel of large and handsome 
flowers from a terminal scaly bud, in early summer. We have only one common species, viz.: — 


POPULAR FLORA. 


171 


Great R. or Laurel. Leaves lance-oblong, 4' to 10' long, green both sides; flowers 1' wide, pale 
rose or white, greenish, and spotted in the throat. Damp, deep woods. 12. maximum. 

Azalea. Azalea. 

Shrubs, like Rhododendron, but with thin and deciduous leaves; the long stamens only 5. Our two 
common wild species (wrongly called Honeysuckle) grow in swamps. 

1. Purple A. or Pinxter-flower. Flowers rather earlier than the leaves; corolla funnel-shaped 

with long recurved lobes, pink-purple or rose-color. A. nudiflbra. 

2. Clammy or White A. Flowers white, clammy, sweet-scented, later than the leaves, which are 

whitish or pale beneath. Common E. A. viscosa. 

• 

Wintergreen (or Shin-leaf). Pyrola. 

Leaves evergreen, rounded, all next the ground, around the base of a scape bearing a raceme of 
greenish-white (or rarely rose-colored) nodding flowers. Petals 5, all separate, not spreading. Stamens 
10: filaments awl-shaped, naked. Style long. Pod 5-lobed. 

x * Style turned down and curved. 

1. Round-leaved W. Leaves orbicular, thick, shining ; raceme many-flowered ; calyx-lobes lance¬ 

shaped. Moist woods. P. rotundifolia. 

2. Oval-leaved W. Leaves broadly oval, thin; flowers many; calyx-lobes ovate, short. P. elliptica. 

3. Small W. Leaves roundish, thick, small; flowers few; cells of the anther pointed. P. chlordntha. 

* * Style straight. 

4. One-sided W. Leaves thin, ovate; flowers small, all on one side of the raceme. P. secunda. 

Pipsissewa. Chimdphila. 

Leaves evergreen, oblong or lance-shaped, toothed, crowded or scattered on short ascending stems, 
which bears at the summit from 1 to 7 fragrant flesh-colored flowers in a corymb or umbel. Petals 
orbicular, widely spreading. Stamens 10; their filaments enlarged and hairy in the middle. Style 
very short: stigma broad and flat. Dry -woods; fl. early summer. 

1. Umbelled P. (or Prince’s-Pine). Leaves lance-shaped with a tapering base, serrate, bright 

green, not spotted; flowers 4 to 7. C. umbelldta. 

2. Spotted P. Plant smaller, 3' to 6' high: leaves lance-ovate, obtuse at the base, blotched with 

white, flowers 1 to 4. C. maculata. 

54. HOLLY FAMILY. Order AQUIFOLIACE2E. 

Trees or shrubs, with alternate leaves, and small regular (often polygamous) flowers in 
the axils; the minute calyx and the 4 - 6-parted (greenish or white) corolla free from the 
ovary. Stamens 4 to 6, attached to the very base of the corolla, alternate with its divisions. 
Anthers opening lengthwise. Stigmas nearly sessile. Fruit a berry-like drupe, containing 
4 to 6 small seedlike stones. — Consists mainly of the genus 

Holly. Ilex. 

Containing several species, some with deciduous, others with evergreen leaves. 

1. American Holly. Leaves thick and evergreen, spiny-toothed, oval ; parts of the blossom in 
fours; fruit red. — Tree with ash-colored bark and white wood. I. opaca. 

12 


172 


POPULAR FLORA. 


2. Winterberry H. or Black Alder. Leaves thin and deciduous, serrate, veiny, obovate or ob¬ 
long; peduncles very short; parts of the blossom often in sixes; fruit red. Shrub: low grounds. 
This belongs to the section Prinos. I. verticillata. 

55. EBONY FAMILY. Order EBENACEJE. 

Of this small family, we have only one species, a tree, which deserves notice, viz.: — 


423 


Persimmon. 



425 


421 


422 

422. Fertile flower. 423. Corolla and stamens of the same, laid open. 
424. Fruit. 425. Section of the same. 


Diospyros. 

Tree with alternate thickish leaves; 
in their axils some trees bear clustered 
staminate flowers, with a 4-cleft corolla 
and about 16 stamens; others single and 
larger perfect flowers, with a 4-lobed 
corolla and 8 stamens. Calyx 4-clefTt, 
rather large, thickish. Corolla pale yel¬ 
low. Pistil one, with 4 styles: the ovary 
ripening into a plum-like fruit, which is 
very astringent when green, but sweet 
and yellow and eatable after frosts, con¬ 
taining 8 large and bony flat seeds. 

D. Virginiana . 


56. PLANTAIN FAMILY. Order PLANTAGINACEiE. 
Consists mainly of the genus of low stemless herbs called 

Plantain (or Rib-Grass). Plantago. 

Flowers greenish, on a scape, in a close spike. — Calyx of 4 persistent sepals. Corolla 
salver-shaped, thin, withering on the pod, 4-lobed. Stamens 4, generally with very long 
and weak filaments, borne on the corolla. Style and stigma one, slender. Pod 2-celled, 
opening crosswise, the top falling off as a lid, the loose partition falling out with the 
seeds. Leaves generally with strong ribs. 

1. Common Plantain. Leaves ovate or 

slightly heart-shaped, several-ribbed; 
seeds 7 to 16. P. major. 

2. Virginia P. Small (2' to 7' high), hairy; 

leaves oblong, 3-5-ribbed; seeds 2. 

P. Virginica. 

3. English P. or Ripple-Grass. Hairy, 

with long lance-shaped or linear leaves, 
and a short and thick spike or head, on 
a scape 1° or 2° high; seeds 2. Com¬ 
mon E. P. lanceolala. 

4. Seaside P. Smooth; leaves linear, thick 

and fleshy; seeds 2. Salt marshes on the 
coast. 

lid. 



429 


426 


... 426. Young spike of common Plantain. 427. A flower magnified. 428. Pis- 

j . mantima. til of the same. 429. Fruit, opening by a lid ; the withered corolla on the 











POPULAR FLORA. 


173 


57. LEADWORT FAMILY. Order PLUMBAGINACEJE. 

Familiar to us in two plants only, viz. Marsh-Rosemary on the coast, and Thrift in 

gardens; known by having a dry and scaly funnel-shaped 
calyx, and 5 petals united only at their base, with a stamen 
before each, and 5 styles on a single one-seeded ovary. 

Flowers (rose-color) in a round head on a long and 
naked scape: leaves very narrow, all in a close tuft 
at the root, ( Arm'eria ) Thrift. 

Flowers (lavender-color) spiked or sessile along the 
branches of a forking panicle : leaves spatulate, 
thickish, on petioles, nearly all of them from the 
stout rootstock, ( Statice ) Marsh-Rosemary. 

430. Calyx and corolla of Thrift; separated. 431. Pistil of the same, with its 5 styles t 
also the lower part of an ovary more magnified, cut across. 

58. PRIMROSE FAMILY. Order PRIMULACEJE. 

Herbs, with regular perfect flowers; completely distinguished by having the stamens of 
the same number as the lobes to the corolla and one before each , inserted on the tube; the 
pistil with a one-celled ovary or pod, with one large placenta rising from its base, and bear¬ 
ing many or few seeds. 

Leaves under water pinnately divided into thread-like divisions; flowering stems hollow, 

and inflated between the joints, " ( Eottonia ) Featherfoil. 

Leaves simple and entire or barely toothed. 

Calyx with its tube coherent with the base of the ovary. Flowers very small, white, 

in Racemes. Leaves alternate, (Samolus) Brookweed. 

Calyx and corolla free, inserted on the receptacle. 

Leaves all at the root: flowers in an umbel. 

Calyx tubular: corolla salver-shaped: stamens included, ( Primula ) Primrose. 

Calyx and corolla 5-parted, turned back: anthers long, and filaments very 

short, connected, ( Dodecatheon ) Dodecatkeon. 

Leaves several in a whorl at the summit of the slender stem. Calyx and corolla 

7-parted, wheel-shaped, with narrow divisions, ( Trientalis) Star-flower. 

Leaves (mostly opposite or whorled) borne along the whole length of the stem: 
corolla 5-parted. 

Corolla wheel-shaped, yellow, ( Lysimachia ) Loosestrife. 

Corolla wheel-shaped, blue or purple: pod opening by a lid, ( Anagallis ) Pimpernel. 

Loosestrife. Lysimachia. 

This is the only genus in the Primrose family of which we have more than one common wild spe¬ 
cies. The 5 stamens have their filaments a little monadelphous at the base, and often unequal. FI. in 
summer. 

1. Strict L. Leaves opposite or scattered, lance-shaped: stem ending in a long raceme leafy at the 
base; divisions of the corolla lance-oblong. Low grounds. L. siricla. 






174 


POPULAR FLORA. 


2. Four-leaved L. Stem simple; leaves lance-ovate, in whorls of 4 (sometimes of 3 or 6); flowers 

long-stalked from the axil of the leaves. Sandy grounds. L. quadrifolia. 

3. Ciliate L. Leaves opposite, lance-ovate, with a rounded or heart-shaped base, on long ciliate 

footstalks; flowers long-stalked from the upper axils; divisions of the corolla ovate, pointed, and 
with wavy or slightly toothed margins. Low grounds. L. cilicita. 

4. Lance-leaved L. Leaves lance-shaped, oblong, or linear, narrowed into a short margined foot¬ 

stalk; flowers, &c. nearly as in No. 3. S. & W. in low grounds. L. lanceolaia. 


59. BIGNONIA FAMILY. Order BIGNONIACEJE. 

Plants with mostly opposite leaves, and large and showy flowers: the corolla 2-lipped 
or rather irregular, bearing on its tube 4 stamens (2 long and 2 short) or only 2, often 

with rudiments of the other one or three. 
Fruit a large 2-celled pod, with many large 
seeds: the whole kernel is a flat embryo. 
Calyx free and corolla on the receptacle, as 
it is in all the following families with mono- 
petalous corolla. 

Woody plants, with winged seeds, in long 
pods. Vine climbing by rootlets: 
leaves pinnate. Calyx 5-toothed. 

Corolla funnel-shaped, 5-lobed: sta¬ 
mens 4, ( Tecoma) Trumpet-Creeper. 

Tree, with simple heart-shaped leaves, 
and white flowers (purple-tinged or 
dotted) in large panicles. Calyx 2-lipped. Corolla bell-shaped and 2-lipped: stamens 
generally 2, with vestiges of one or three others, ( Catalpa) Catalpa. 

Bank clammy herb (cult, and wild S. W.) with wingless seeds in a large and long-pointed 
fruit, the outer part of which is fleshy and falls off from the inner fibrous-woody part: 
this is crested and long-beaked, the beak at length splitting into 2 hooked horns. Corolla 
dull-colored: stamens 2 or 4, perfect, ( Martynia ) Unicorn-plant. 



432. Corolla of Catalpa laid open, with the stamens. 

433. Winged seed of Trumpet-Creeper. 


60. BROOM-BAPE FAMILY. Order OROBANCHACEiE. 

Herbs parasitic on the roots of trees, &c., readily known by their irregular monopetalous 
corolla, 4 stamens, in two pairs; the ovary one-celled with innumerable small seeds on the 
walls. Also, like other parasitic plants, they are entirely destitute of green herbage, yel¬ 
lowish or brownish throughout, and with scales in place of leaves. 

Stems slender and branched, with few and small scales and many flowers scattered along 

the branches, ( Epiph'egm ) Beech-drops. 

Stems short and thick, covered with broad scales, so that the plant resembles a fir-cone 

Flowers under the upper scales: stamens projecting, ( Conopholis) Squaw-root. 

Stems or naked and 1-flowered scapes slender, from a scaly base: stamens included in the 

curved and salver-shaped corolla, ( Aphyllon ) Naked Broom-rape. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


175 


61. FIGWORT FAMILY. Order SCROPHULARIACEJE. 

Herbs with a 2-lipped or more or less irregular monopetalous corolla, and 4 stamens 

in pairs (2 long and 2 short), or only 2 perfect stamens; 
rarely all 5 present: style 1: the ovary 2-celled and 
making a many-seeded pod (few-seeded in some Speed¬ 
wells and Cow-wheat). Flowers often showy. Two lobes 
always belong to the upper lip, three to the lower. 




434. Corolla of a Pentsfemon, 
laid open, showTng the 4 perfect 
stamens and the fifth as a sterile 
naked filament. 

435. Stamens (with a piece of 
the corolla) of another Pentste- 
mon, with the sterile filament 
bearded. 

436. Piece of Purple Gerardia. 

437. Corolla laid open, showing 
the 4 stamens in pairs. 

438. Style and calyx of the same. 

439. Part of a pod. 

440. Flower of Toadflax. 

441. Plant of Hedge-Hyssop. 

442. Flower laid open ; one pair 
of good stamens ; one pair of ster¬ 
ile filaments. 


* Corolla wheel-shaped or with a very short tube, the lobes more or less unequal. 

Calyx and corolla 5-cleft: stamens 5, some of them rather imperfect, ( Verbascum) Mullein. 

Calyx and corolla 4-parted: stamens 2, ( Veronica) Speedwell. 

* * Corolla more or less tubular, bell-shaped and irregular, or 2-lipped. 
h— Upper lip or lobes covering the lower in the bud (except sometimes in Monkey-flower). 
Corolla with its 2-lipped mouth closed by a palate, i. e. an inward projection of the lower 
lip: stamens 4. 

Corolla with a slender spur at the base on the lower side, ( Linaria ) Toadflax. 

Corolla sac-like at the base on the lower side, ( Antirrhinum ) Snapdragon. 

Corolla 2-parted: the lower lip sac-shaped in the middle; the short tube with a protuber¬ 
ance at the base on the upper side: stamens 4, ( Collinsia ) Collinsia. 

















176 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Corolla ovoid, small, dull greenish purple, with 4 short unequal erect lobes, and one small 

recurved one (the lower). Stamens 4 and a rudiment, ( Scrophularia ) Figwort. 
Corolla shaped like a turtle’s head, the mouth closed or nearly so, without a palate. Sta¬ 
mens 4 with woolly anthers; and a sterile filament besides, ( Chelone) Turtlehead. 
Corolla open at the irregular or 2-lipped mouth. Stamens 4, and a sterile filament besides 

(Fig. 434, 435), ( Pentstemon ) Pentstemon. 

Corolla 2-lipped; the upper lip with the sides turned back, the lower lip turned down. 

Stamens 4, no vestige of the fifth. Calyx elongated, 5-angled, 5- 
toothed. Stigmas with 2 broad lips, ( Mimulus ) Monkey-flower. 

Corolla somewhat 2-lipped, open. Stamens only 2 perfect. Calyx 5-parted. 

Sterile filaments included, or none. Corolla yellow or whitish, ( Gratiola) Hedge-Hyssof. 

Sterile filaments long, protruding from the purple or blue corolla, ( Ilysantlies) False-Pimpernel. 
-t- Lower lip or the side lobes covering the others in the bud. 

Corolla (large, purple or white) tubular, open; the border slightly 5-lobed, ( Digitalis ) ^Foxglove. 

Corolla salver-shaped. Flowers in a spike. 

Stamens 2, projecting, longer than the 4 lobes of the corolla, ( Veronica Virginica) Culver’s-root. 
Stamens 4, included: lobes of the corolla 5: calyx tubular, 5-toothed, (.Buchneva) Blue-hearts. 
Corolla bell-shaped or funnel-shaped, somewhat irregularly 5-lobed. Stamens 4, ( Gerardia) Gerardia. 
Corolla tubular, decidedly 2-lipped, the narrow upper lip erect or arched, enclosing the 4 
stamens. Flowers in a spike. Pod many-seeded. 

Bracts large and colored, scarlet in our species. Calyx tubular, ( Castillexa) Painted-cup. 

Bracts green, small. Leaves pinnatifid, ( Pedicularis ) Lousewort. 

Mullein. Verbascum. 

Flowers in a long terminal spike or raceme. Corolla 5-parted, almost regular. Stamens 5, unequal, 
but generally all with anthers. Root biennial. 

1. Common M. Tall, woolly throughout; the simple stem winged by the prolonged bases of the leaves; 

flowers yellow, in a long thick spike; two of the filaments smooth. Fields, &c. V. Thapsus. 

2. Moth M. Green, smoothish; stem 2° or 3° high; leaves toothed; flowers yellow or white in a loose 

raceme; filaments all bearded with yellow wool. Road-sides. V. Blattaria. 

Speedwell. Veronica. 

Flowers small; one or two of the lobes of the 4-parted border, of the corolla always smaller than the 
others. Stamens 2, protruding. Pod flattened, many-seeded in the common species. 

§ 1. Corolla salver-shaped, the tube longer than the border. Pod not notched at the end. 

1. Culver’s-root S. A tall perennial, with lance-shaped pointed leaves in whorls, and whitish flowers 

crowded in clustered spikes. Woods, W. and S., and cultivated in gardens. V. Virginica. 

k 2. Corolla wheel-shaped, tube very short, pale blue or white. Pod notched at the end. Leaves opposite. 
* Flowers in single racemes from the axils of the leaves. 

2. Water S. Smooth; stems rooting at the creeping lower part, then erect; leaves*sessile by a heart- 

shaped base, ovate-lanceolate; corolla pale blue with darker stripes. Brooks. V Anagdllis. 

3. Brook S. or Brooklime. Leaves ovate or oblong, on petioles; otherwise like the last. V Americana. 

4. Marsh S. Smooth, slender; leaves sessile, linear, acute; raceme zigzag, loose. V. scutellala. 

5. Common S. Downy; stems creeping; leaves wedge-oblong, serrate; raceme dense. Dry ground, 

in open woods. F officinalis. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


177 


* * Flowers in a terminal loose raceme. 

6. Thyme-leaved S. Smooth and small, 2' to 4' high from a creeping base; leaves ovate or oblong, 

the lowest petioled and rounded. Fields, everywhere. V. serpyllifolia. 

* * * Flowers in the axils of the upper leaves. Root annual. 

7. Purslane S. or Neckweed. Smooth, branching, erect; lower leaves oval or oblong, toothed, 

and petioled; uppermost oblong-linear, sessile, and entire. Cult, grounds, &c. V. peregrina. 

8. Corn S. Hairy; lower leaves ovate, crenate, petioled; the upper sessile, lance-shaped, and entire. 

Cultivated grounds. V. arvensis. 

Toadflax. Linaria. 

1. Common T. (Butter-and-Eggs, Ramsted). Stems branching, crowded with the pale linear 

leaves; flowers crowded in a close raceme, large and showy, pale yellow with the palate orange- 
colored. A weed in fields and road-sides. L. vulgaris. 

2. Wild T. Stem very slender, simple, with scattered linear leaves; prostrate shoots at the bottom 

with broader leaves; flowers very small, blue, in a slender raceme. Sandy soil. L. Canadensis. 

Gerardia. Gerardia. 

Plants with large and showy somewhat leafy-racemed flowers; the corolla a little irregular, but hardly 
2-lipped. Stamens woolly or hairy; the 4 anthers approaching in pairs. FI. late summer and autumn. 
* Corolla rose-purple: calyx bell-shaped, with 5 short teeth: plants low and bushy-branched. 

1. Purple G. Leaves linear, rough-margined; flowers 1' long, short-stalked. G. purpurea. 

2. Slender G. Leaves linear; flower about i' long, on a long and slender stalk. G. tenuifolia. 

* * Corolla yellow, with a rather long tube, woolly inside: calyx 5-cleft, leaf-like. 

3. Downy G. Stem (3° or 4° high) and oblong or lance-shaped leaves clothed with a fine close down, 

upper leaves entire, lower ones sinuate or pinnatifid. Woods. G.jlava. 

4. Smooth G. Smooth throughout and glaucous, 3° to 6° high; lower leaves twice pinnatifid, upper 

once pinnatifid or entire. Rich woods. G. quercifolia. 

5. Cut-leaved G. Rather downy, bushy-branched, 2° or 3° high, very leafy; leaves pinnatifid, the 

crowded divisions cut and toothed. G. pedicularia. 

62. VERVAIN FAMILY. Order VERBENACEiE. 

Herbs or shrubby plants, with opposite leaves, a 2-lipped or unequally 5- (or rarely 4-) 
lobed corolla, and 4 stamens in pairs (i. e. 2 long and 2 short ones) : the pistil with a single 
ovary and only one seed in each cell; the fruit either berry-like with 4 stones, or dry and 
splitting into 2 or 4 akenes, or in Lopseed consisting of a single akene. This family is in¬ 
termediate between the foregoing order and the next. The two following are the com¬ 
monest genera. 

Calyx cylindrical, 2-lipped. Corolla 2-lipped. Ovary 1-celled, simple. Herb, in woods, 
with small whitish flowers in slender and loose spikes; the calyx containing 
the akene, turned down in fruit, (Phryma ) Lopseed. 

Calyx tubular, 5-toothed. Corolla salver-shaped, with 5 slightly unequal lobes. Flowers 

in spikes or heads, summer and autumn, ( Verbena) Vervain. 


178 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Vervain. Verbena. 

* Showy Verbenas: low and showy-flowered species, in gardens in summer, the greater part from 

South America, viz. V. Melindres (red) and others, now much mixed. And there is one species 
of this sort wild in Western prairies, viz.: — 

1. Aublet’s Verbena. Rather hairy; leaves pinnatifid or cut; spikes flat-topped in blossom, like a 

corymb; corolla light purple, &c. V. Aubletia. 

* * Common Vervains: weeds or weed-like plants, in fields and road-sides, with small flowers in 

long spikes, which are generally panicled. 

2. Common V. Erect, slenderly branched, 1° to 3° high; leaves sessile, cleft or pinnatifid and cut¬ 

toothed ; spikes very slender; flowers very small, purplish. V. officinalis. 

S. White V. Leaves petioled, ovate or oval, serrate; spikes of white flowers very slender. V. urticifolia. 

4. Blue V. Leaves petioled, lance-shaped or lance-oblong, the lower often cut or 2-lobed at the base; 

spikes of blue flowers thick and close; stem 4° to 6° high. V. hastata. 

5. Low V. Stems £o to 1° high; leaves lance-linear, sessile, scarcely toothed; spikes one or few, 

thickish; flowers purple. S. and W. V. angustifolia. 

63. SAGE or MINT FAMILY. Order LABIATJE. 

Herbs with square stems and opposite aromatic leaves, a 2-lipped (or rather irregular) 
corolla, 4 stamens in pairs (2 long and 2 shorter), or else only 2 sta¬ 
mens, and a 4-parted ovary, in fruit making 4 akenes around the 
base of the single style. That is, among the families with 2-lipped 
or irregular monopetalous corollas this is at once known by the 4- 
lobed ovary, making 4 akenes. The leaves are commonly more or 
less dotted with small glands, which contain a volatile oil, peculiar to 
each species. This gives the warm aromatic properties which all 
plants of this family possess. By distillation, the oil is extracted from 
several species, as from Peppermint and Spearmint, Lavender, Pen¬ 
nyroyal, &c. Or the dried foliage is used for seasoning or for herb 
drinks in the case of Summer-Savory, Marjoram, Thymfe, Catnip, 

443 . FioweVof Garden s a?e . and Sage. The following are the common genera or kinds of this 

444. Pistil of the same, the 4- , /» m 

lobed ovary in the bottom of large lamily. 
the calyx, half of which is 

cut away. 

* Stamens 4, turned down so as to rest upon the lower lip of the corolla. 

Flowers in racemes, white: calyx soon reflexed, its upper lobe large and round: upper 

lip of the corolla 4-cleft, the lower entire. Leaves ovate, fragrant, ( Ocimum) *Sweet-Basil. 
Flowers in a naked and peduncled spike, pale blue: calyx narrow, 6-toothed: the 5 lobes 

of the corolla almost equal: stamens short: leaves narrow, hoary, ( Lavandula ) ^Lavender. 

* * Stamens 4, ascending, and projecting from the upper side of the corolla^ Akenes veiny. 
Corolla cleft down the upper side, the lower lobe much larger than the other 4. Flowers 

purplish, rarely white, in a spike, ( Teiicnum) Germander. 

Corolla with the border cleft into 6 almost equal lobes, blue. 

Stamens very long, curved: lobes of the corolla turned rather forward, ( Trichostema) Blue-curls. 
Stamens slightly projecting from the equally 5-lobed corolla, ( Isdnthus ) False-Pennyroyal. 




POPULAR FLORA. 


179 


* * * Stamens 4 or 2, not turned down, and not protruding from the upper side of the flower. 
Corolla scarcely at all two-lipped, almost equally 4-lobed. Flowers small. 

Stamens 4 with anthers, almost equal in length, ( Mentha ) Mint. 

Stamens only 2 with anthers. Flowers in dense axillary whorls, (Lycopus) Water-Hoeehound. 
Corolla evidently 2-lipped: stamens 2, or only 2 with anthers. 

Upper lip nearly flat or spreading, 2-lobed or notched at the end. 

Calyx equally 5-toothed, bearded in the throat. Cymes terminal, ( Curiila) Dittany. 

Calyx 2-lipped: upper lip 3-toothed, the lower 2-cleft. 

Throat of the calyx bearded: corolla small: 2 sterile filaments, (Uedeoma) Pennyroyal. 
Throat of the calyx, naked; that of the large corolla bearded; the middle 

lobe of its lower lip large and hanging, fringe-toothed, ( Collinsonia) Horse-Balm. 
Upper lip of the corolla arched, entire or slightly notched, holding the stamens. 

Calyx equally 5-tootlied, tubular: lips of the large corolla long and narrow. 

Flowers crowded in close and leafy-bracted heads, ( Mondrda) Horse-Mint. 

Calyx 2-lipped. 

Upper lip with 3 bristle-pointed teeth. Flowers in heads, ( Blephilia ) Blepiiilia. 

Upper lip entire or 3-toothed. Anthers with only one cell, on the end of a 

long connective astride the end of the filament, (Salvia ) Sage. 

Corolla 2-lipped: stamens 4, all with anthers. 

Upper and inner pair of stamens longer than the lower or outer pair, 

And curved downwards. Flowers spiked, small. Herbs tall, (Lopihdnthus) Giant-Hyssop. 
Both pairs of stamens ascending under the upper lip. 

Flowers in terminal spikes or clusters, ( Nepeta) Catnip. 

Flowers few in the axils of kidney-shaped leaves, ( Ghchoma) Ground-Ivy. 

Upper pair of stamens shorter than the lower or outer pair. 

Upper lip of the corolla flat and open, or barely concave. 

Stamens distant or diverging, njt approaching under the upper lip. 

Calyx tubular, equally 5-toothed, 15-nerved. Stamens long, (Hyssopus ) ^Hyssot. 

Calyx 10 to 13-nerved, ovate, bell-shaped, or short tubular. 

Calyx naked in the throat. 

Flowers in dense heads or clusters, ( Pycndnthemum) Mountain-Mint. 

Flowers clustered in the axils or spiked, ( Sciture'ia ) *Summer-Savory. 

Calyx hairy in the throat. 

Flowers spiked, and with large colored bracts, ( Origanum) Marjoram. 
Flowers loosely clustered: bracts minute, (Thymus) *Tiiyme. 

Stamens with their anthers approaching in pairs under the upper lip. 

Calyx tubular. Flowers in a head-like cluster, surrounded with awl- 

shaped bracts, ( Clinopodium) Basil. 

Calyx tubular-bell-shaped and 2-lipped: corolla curved upwards. 

Flowers few in loose clusters, ( Melissa ) *Balm. 

Upper lip of the corolla concave, the whole throat inflated and funnel-shaped. 

Flowers large in naked spikes, ( Physost'egia ) False-Dragoniiead. 

Upper lip of the corolla arched or hood-like. 

Calyx 2-lipped, closed over the fruit, and 

Very veiny, the lips toothed: flowers in a bracted short spike, ( Brunella) Self-heal. 
Not veiny, becoming helmet-shaped; lips entire, Scutellaria) Scullcap. 


180 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Calyx not 2-lipped, 10-toothed. Clusters axillary, head-like, ( Marriibium ) Horehound. 

Calyx not 2-lipped and only 5-toothed, 

Funnel-shaped and much larger than the corolla, ( Moluccella) *Molucca-Balm. 

Bell-shaped or top-shaped, much shorter than the corolla. 

Anthers opening crosswise: calyx-teeth spiny-pointed, ( Galeojisis) Hemp-Nettle. 
Anthers opening lengthwise. 

Corolla not enlarged in the throat: stamens turned down after shed¬ 
ding their pollen, ( Stachys ) Hedge-Nettle. 

Corolla enlarged in the throat: calyx-teeth not spiny, (Laminin) Dead-Nettle. 
Corolla not enlarged in the throat: calyx top-shaped with spiny 

teeth. Akenes 3-angled. Leaves cleft and cut, ( Leonurus ) Motherwort. 

Mint. Mentha. 

Herbs with sharp-tasted leaves and small whitish or purplish flowers: upper lobe of the short co¬ 
rolla either entire or notched. 

1. Wild Mint. Flowers in head-like clusters around the stem in the axils of the petioled leaves; 

plant hairy, or in one variety smoothish. Wet places. M. Canadensis. 

2. Peppermint. Smooth; clusters of flowers crowded in short spikes; leaves petioled, oblong or 

ovate. M. piperita. 

3. Spearmint. Nearly smooth; spikes panicled; leaves lance-ovate, almost sessile. M. vindis. 

Horse-Mint. Monarda. 

Herbs with mostly simple stems, and rather large flowers in close head-like clusters at the summit 
of the stem, and around it in the axils of the upper leaves, surrounded by large bracts. 

* Root perennial: upper lip of the narrow corolla entire, the 2 stamens projecting from it: leaves 

lance-ovate or slightly heart-shaped. 

1. Balm H. or Oswego Tea. Green, rather hairy; corolla long, bright red; uppermost leaves and 

bracts tinged with red. Moist banks, N., and in gardens. M. didyma. 

2. Common H. Pale, smoothish or soft downy; flowers purplish or whitish, smaller. M.flstulosa. 

* * Root annual: upper lip of the corolla notched: stamens not projecting. 

3. Dotted H. Leaves lance-shaped; bracts yellowish and purple; corolla yellowish, purple-spotted. 

Sandy soil, S. M. punctata. 

Scullcap. Scutellaria. 

Well marked by the tubular ascending corolla (mostly blue or bluish-purple) with a strongly arched 
upper lip; the calyx with two short entire lips, closed after the corolla falls, and having an enlargement 
on the back, the whole becoming of the shape of a helmet. FI. summer. 

* Flowers small, in axillary one-sided racemes. 

1. Mad-dog S. Smooth, branched, slender; leaves lance-ovate or oblong, pointed, serrate, on slender 

stalks. Wet places. - S. lateriflora. 

* * Flowers in terminal racemes. 

2. Larger S. Hairy and rather clammy, 1° to 3° high; leaves heart-shaped or ovate, wrinkled- 

veiny; upper lip of the corolla blue, the lower pale and purple-spotted. S. and W. S. versicolor. 

3. Hairy S. Hairy, 1° to 3° high, slender; leaves ovate, crenate, obtuse, veiny. S.pil'osa . 


POPULAR FLORA. 


181 


4. Narrow-leaved S. Minutely hoary or downy, slender, 1° or 2° high; leaves lance-oblong or 

linear, entire; raceme short, as in the foregoing. E. and S. 8. integrifolia. 

* * * Flowers single, in the axils of the leaves. 

5. Dwarf S. Minutely downy, 3' to 6'high; leaves round-ovate or the upper lance-ovate, entire, 

i' long. Dry or sandy banks of rivers, &c. & pdrvula. 

6. Slender S. Slender, 1° or 2° high; leaves lance-ovate, serrate, with a roundish or slightly heart- 

shaped base, sessile; flowers §' long. Wet woods. S. galericulata . 

64. BORRAGE FAMILY. Order BORRAGINACEiE. 

Herbs with alternate entire leaves, not aromatic, commonly rough: the flowers regular, 
with a 5-leaved calyx, 5-lobed corolla, 5 stamens on the tube, one style, and a 4-lobed 

ovary, making 4 akenes. 
Flowers generally in one¬ 
sided raceme-like clusters, 
coiled up at the tip, and 
unfolding as the blossoms 
expand. Innocent mucila¬ 
ginous and slightly bitter 
plants, the roots of some 
species yielding a red dye. 

445. Branch of Forget-me-not, in flower. 

446. The corolla laid open, wilh the 
stamens, magnified. 

447. The pistil with its 4-lobed ovary ; 
calyx, &c. cut away. 

448. Two of the ripe akenes in the 
calyx; the two sepals towards the eye 
and two of the akenes removed. 

449. Akene cut through lengthwise, 
magnified ; the whole kernel embryo. 

450. Flowers of Comfrey. 

451. Corolla enlarged, laid open, show¬ 
ing the sharp scales inside, and the stamens. 

* Ovary 4-parted, making 4 akenes around the base of the style. 

Akenes or lobes erect, fixed by the lower end, separate from the style, not prickly. 

Corolla somewhat irregular (the lobes rather unequal), funnel-shaped (blue or purple). 

Its throat naked and open: stamens protruding, rather unequal, ( Echiurn) Viper’ s-Bugloss. 

Its throat closed by 5 blunt scales; tube curved: stamens included, ( Lycopsis ) Bugloss. 

Corolla, &c. perfectly regular. 

Its throat closed by 5 converging scales, one before each lobe. 

Corolla wheel-shaped; its lobes acute. Plant rough-bristly, ( Borrago) *Borragk. 
Corolla tubular and somewhat funnel-shaped, 5-toothed, ( Symphytum ) Comfrey. 

Its throat open, naked or with 5 small projections. Akenes mostly stony. 

Lobes of the tubular corolla acute and erect, ( Onosmbdium) False-Gromwell. 

Lobes of the trumpet-shaped corolla spreading, rounded, short. Akenes 

fleshy. Plant very smooth, ( Mertensia ) Lungwort. 









r. 


182 POPULAR FLORA. 

Lobes of the salver-shaped or funnel-shaped corolla spreading, rounded. 

Each with one edge outside and one inside in the bud : corolla very- 

short, ( Myosotis ) Scorpion-Grass or Forget-me-not. 

Two lobes covering the others in the bud. 

Corolla short, white or whitish, funnel-shaped, ( Lithospermum) Grom well. 

Corolla long, orange-yellow, salver-shaped, ( Lithospermum ,, § Batschia) Puccoon. 
Akenes or lobes of the ovary prickly, fixed by their side or upper end to the base of the 
style. Corolla salver-shaped, with 5 scales in the throat. 

Erect, prickly on the margins only. Flowers small, ( Echinospermum) Stickseed. 

Oblique or flattened from above, short-prickly or rough all over, ( Cynoglossum) Hound’s-tongue. 

* * Ovary not lobed, but splitting when ripe into 4 akenes: corolla short, (Heliotropium) ^Heliotrope. 

65. WATERLEAF FAMILY. Order HYDROPHYLLACEiE. 

Herbs with lobed, compound, or toothed and mostly alternate leaves; the regular flowers 
much like those of the Borrag§ Family, except as to the ovary, which is globular and only 

one-celled and bears the 
few or many ovules and 
seeds on the walls (pari¬ 
etal), or on two projections 
from them. In Waterleaf, 
Nemophila, &c., the two 
placentas, bearing the few 
seeds, broaden and make 
a kind of lining to the 
pod. Corolla bell-shaped 
or wheel-shaped; its lobes and the stamens always 5. Style 2-cleft above. The Water- 
leaf furnishes our principal plants of the family that are common wild. But some Ne- 
mophilas and Phacelias, from Texas and California, are showy garden annuals. 

Leaves opposite, at least the lower ones. Stamens not projecting beyond the corolla. 

Calyx without appendages or teeth between the divisions, large in fruit, ( Ellisia ) Ellisia. 

Calyx with 5 reflexed teeth between the divisions, ( Nemophila) ^Nemophila. 

Leaves alternate: appendages of the calyx none or minute: stamens long. 

Mostly annuals: seeds on the walls of the pod, or two narrow placentas, ( Phacelia ) Phacelia. 
Perennials, with scaly-toothed rootstocks. Seeds 1 to 4, enclosed in a membrane 
which lines the pod. Flowers white or bluish, clustered: filaments 
bearded below, ( Hydrophyllum ) Waterleaf. 

I 

Waterleaf. Hydrophyllum. 

1. Virginia W. Smoothish, 1° or 2° high; leaves pinnately divided into 6 or 7 narrow and toothed 

or cleft lobes; calyx hairy. Rich woods. H. Virginicum. 

2. Canada W. Smoothish; leaves rounded, palmately lobed, longer than the peduncle ; calyx 

smooth. Rich woods. H. Canadense. 





452. Flower of Virginia Waterleaf. 453* Corolla laid open, and stamens. 
454. Calyx and young pod, with the style. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


183 


66. POLEMONIUM FAMILY. Order POLEMONIACEJE. 

Herbs, not twining (but Cobaea climbs by tendrils), with regular flowers, all the parts in 
fives, except the pistil, which is 3-celled and the style 3-cleft at the top, the 5 spreading 



lobes of the corolla convolute in the bud, 

i. e. overlapping so that one edge of each 
is outside of that behind it, but inside 
of the next one. Flowers generally 
handsome. All the kinds here given 
are cultivated; but the Phloxes are wild 
in this country (especially W. and S.), 
and so is one Polemonium. Gilias are 
pretty garden annuals from California, 
&c. Cobaea, which is placed here, though 
very different from the rest, is a great- 
flowered vine from Mexico. 


Climbing by tendrils on the pinnate leaves: flowers axillary, single: calyx leafy: corolla 

bell-shaped, large, but dull-colored, ( Cobcea) *Coilea. 

Not climbing: flowers in panicled cymes or clusters. 

Stamens inserted at very unequal heights on the long tube of the salver-shaped 
corolla, short, included: calyx narrow, 5-angled: seeds only one in each cell. 

Leaves all entire, sessile, and opposite, except the uppermost, (Phlox) Phlox. 

Stamens all inserted at the same height. Leaves mostly alternate and compound. 

Corolla almost wheel-shaped (light-blue): stamens turned towards the lower side 

of the flower: leaves pinnate, ( Polemonium ) Polemonium. 

Corolla funnel-shaped or salver-shaped: stamens not turned to one side: seeds 

several. Leaves once to thrice pinnately divided, ( Gilia) Gilia. 


Phlox. Phlox. 

* Perennial herbs, growing in open w^ods, and in gardens. 

1. Panicled P. Stem stout, 2° to 4° high; leaves lance-oblong and ovate-lanceolate, pointed, taper¬ 

ing or the upper ones heart-shaped at the base; panicle large and broad; corolla pink or white, the 
lobes entire. FI. summer. P. paniculata. 

2. Spotted P. Stem 1° or 2° high, slender, simple, purple-spotted; lower leaves lance-shaped, upper¬ 

most lance-ovate, tapering upwards from the rounded or slightly heart-shaped base; panicle 
narrow; calyx-teeth rather blunt; corolla pink-purple, or varying to white in gardens, the lobes 
entire. FI. summer. P. metadata. 

3. Hairy P. Stems slender, ascending, 1° or 2° high, clammy-hairy; leaves lance-shaped or lance- 

linear; cyme flat; calyx-teeth long, awn-pointed; lobes of the rose-pink corolla entire. FI. 
early summer. P. pilosa. 

4. Running P. Spreading by creeping runners, bearing roundish and thickish smooth leaves; flow¬ 

ering stems 4' to 8' high, with oblong leaves; flowers few and large; lobes of the red-purple 
corolla round and entire. FI. early summer. P. reptans. 



184 


POPULAR FLORA. 


6. Spreading P. Stems ascending, 9' to 18' high, rather clammy; leaves ovate-oblong or broad 
lance-shaped; cyme loosely-flowered; lobes of the pale lilac or bluish corolla generally obcordate 
and rather distant from each other. FI. spring, N. & W. P. divaricata. 

6. Ground P. or Moss-Pink. Plant creeping and tufted in flat mats ; leaves awl-shaped or lance- 

linear, small, crowded; corolla pink or rose-color, with a darker eye, sometimes white. FI. spring, 
in sandy or rocky soil. S. & E. P. subulata. 

* * Garden annual from Texas. 

7. Drummond’s P. Rather clammy, branched; leaves lance-oblong, the upper heart-shaped at the 

base; corolla crimson, purple or rose-color, lobes entire. P. Drummondii. 

Polemonium. Polembnium. 

1. Blue P. (Called in gardens Jacob's Ladder or Greek Valerian.) Stem erect, 1° or 2° high, leafy; 

leaflets many; seeds several. Gardens. P. ccerideum. 

2. Wild P. Stems weak, spreading; leaflets 7 to 11; flowers few. Woods, W. & S. P. replans. 

67. CONVOLVULUS FAMILY. Order CONVOLVULACE^E. 

Twining or trailing herbs, often with some milky juice, with alternate leaves and regular 
flowers: calyx of 5 sepals: corolla 5-plaited or 5-lobed. Stamens 5. Pistil making a 
round pod, with 2 to 4 cells and one or two large seeds erect from the bottom of each cell. 
(For illustrations see Fig. 4 to 7, 13 to 22.) Dodders are leafless parasitic plants of the 
family. 

Plants with foliage, and bearing large flowers, open only for one day. Style one. 

Stamens protruded beyond the mouth of the tubular or trumpet-shaped and crimson 

or scarlet corolla, ( Quamoclit ) Quamoclit. 

Stamens included in the tube of the almost entire corolla. 

Stigma thick, 2-lobed: corolla bell-shaped: pod 4-celled, 4-seeded, (Batatas) Sweet-Potato. 
Stigma capitate, thick, with 2 or 3 lobes: corolla funnel-form: pod with 2 or 3 

cells, and 2 seeds in each cell, (Iporricea) Morning-Glory. 

Stigmas 2, long, linear or oblong. [Bindweed.* 

Calyx naked at the base: corolla bell-shaped, (Convolvulus) * Convolvulus or 

Calyx covered by 2 large bractlets: corolla funnel-form, ( Calystegia) Bracted-Bindweed. 
Plants with leafless whitish, reddish, or yellowish thread-like stems, twining over other 
plants, and attaching themselves to their bark, on which they feed: flowers in clus¬ 
ters : corolla bell-shaped, with 5 scales inside the stamens: pod 2-celled, cells 2-seeded: 
embryo spiral, without any cotyledons, ( Cuscuia) Dodder. 

Quamoclit. Quamoclit. 

1. Cypress-vine Q. Leaves narrow, pinnately dissected into thread-shaped divisions; limb of the 

corolla rather deeply 5-lobed. Garden annual. Q. vulgaris. 

2. Scarlet Q. Leaves heart-shaped, entire or nearly so; corolla scarcely lobed, Q. coccinea. 


* The low Three-colored Convolvulus ( C. tricolor) is a garden annual. 





POPULAR FLORA. 


185 


Morning-Glory. Tpomcea. 

1. Common M. Annual; stem hairy, the hairs bent downwards; leaves heart-shaped, entire; flowers 

3 to 5 on the peduncle; flowers purple or pink varying to white, opening early in the morning, 
closing in bright sunshine; pod 3-celled. Cult. &c. /. purpurea. 

2. Wild M. (or Man-of-the-Earth). Smooth; root huge, perennial; leaves heart-shaped, entire or 

some of them narrowed in the middle; flowers 1 to 5 on a peduncle, white with purple in the 
tube, opening in sunshine. Sandy banks. /. panduratus. 

68. NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. Order SOLANACEiE. 

Herbs, or sometimes shrubs, with a colorless bitter or nauseous juice (often poisonous) ; 
alternate leaves; and regular flowers, with 5 (or in cultivated plants sometimes 6 or 7) 
mostly equal stamens and one pistil. Ovary with 2 or more cells, in fruit becoming a 
many-seeded berry or pod. Corolla plaited in the bud, or valvate, i. e. the lobes placed 
edge to edge. 



459 461 462 465 


458. Upper part of the corolla of Stramonium (Fig. 177) in bud. 459. Cross-section of the same, to show how it is plaited and folded. 
469. Flower of Tobacco. 461. Its pod and calyx. 462. Same, with the upper part cut away. 463. Flowers and berries of Bittersweet 
Nightshade. 464. Flower of Henbane. 465. Pod of the same, opening by a lid. 

Corolla wheel-shaped : stamens closely converging or united around the style (Fig. 

182, 183). Fruit a berry. 

Anthers longer than the very short filaments, and 

Connected with each other, opening lengthwise. Berry several-celled, (Lycopersicum) *Tomato. 
Not grown together, opening at the top by two pores, ( Solatium) Nightshade. 

Anthers shorter than the filaments, heart-shaped, separate, opening lengthwise. Berry 
pod-like, inflated, the pulp very pungent (Cayenne or Red Pepper), 

( Capsicum) * Capsicum. 









186 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Corolla between wheel-shaped and bell-shaped, or very open and short funnel-shaped, 
with an almost entire border: anthers separate, shorter than the filaments: ca¬ 
lyx enlarged and enclosing the berry. 

Calyx 5-lobed, becoming a bladdery bag around the (eatable) berry, ( Phi/salis ) Ground-Cherry. 
Calyx 5-parted, the divisions becoming heart-shaped: berry dry, ( Nicandra ) *Apple-of-Peru. 
Corolla funnel-shaped, bell-shaped, or tubular: stamens separate: filaments slender. 

Calyx 5-parted, leafy, spreading: stamens curved or unequal. 

Corolla bell-shaped : stamens curved: fruit a black berry (deadly poi¬ 
sonous), (Atrojoa) ^Deadly Nightshade. 

Corolla funnel-shaped: stamens unequal: fruit a pod, ( Petunia ) ^Petunia. 

Calyx ^-toothed or 5-lobed. 

Shrubby, with vine-like branches and narrow leaves : corolla funnel-shaped, 

small: fruit a berry, ( Lycium) * Matrimony-vine. 

Herbs (annuals), unpleasant-scented, mostly large-flowered. Fruit a pod. 

Corolla (dull and veiny) and stamens rather irregular: pod in the urn-shaped 

calyx, opening at the top by a lid (Fig. 465), ( Hyoscyamus ) Henbane. 

Corolla perfectly regular, generally long funnel-shaped. 

Calyx 5-angled, long, falling away after flowering : pod large and 
prickly, 2-celled and becoming 4-celled, 4-valved. (Flower, 

Fig. 177, 458), ( Datura) Stramonium. 

Calyx not angled, remaining around the smooth pod, which opens by 

several slits at the top, ' ( Nicotiana ) ^Tobacco. 

The only genus which needs to have the species enumerated is the 

Nightshade. Solarium. 

* Anthers blunt: plants not prickly. 

1. Common Nightshade. A very common low, much-branched, homely weed, in damp or shady 

grounds ; root annual; leaves ovate, wavy-toothed; flowers very small, white; berries black, 
small, said to be poisonous. S. nigrum. 

2. Bittersweet N. Stem rather shrubby, climbing; leaves ovate and heart-shaped, some of them 

halberd-shaped or with an ear-like lobe at the base on one or both sides; flowers blue-purple, 
in small cymes; berries bright red. Around dwellings, &c. (The flowers are represented in Fig. 
182, as well as Fig. 463.) S. Dulcamara. 

3. Jerusalem-Cherry N. A low tree-shaped shrub, with lance-oblong and smooth entire leaves, 

scattered and small white flowers, succeeded by large bright red berries like cherries. Cultivated 
in houses, &c. & Pseudo- Capsicum. 

4. Potato or Tuberous N. Shoots under ground bearing tubers (Fig. 60); leaves interruptedly 

pinnate; the leaflets very unequal, some of them minute; corolla only 5-angled (Fig. 183), white 
or blue. Cultivated. & tuberosum. 

* * Anthers long and taper-pointed: stems and leaves prickly. 

5. Egg-Plant N. Leaves ovate, wavy or somewhat lobed, downy; berry oblong, purple or whitish, 

from the size of an egg to that of a melon, eatable when cooked. Cult. S. Melong'ena. 

6. Horse-Nettle N. Leaves ovate or oblong, wavy or angled, hoary-hairy; corolla bluish; berry 

yellow. A weed, S. S. Carolinense. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


187 


69. GENTIAN FAMILY. Order GENTIANACEiE. 

Smooth herbs with a colorless bitter juice; the leaves, with two exceptions, opposite, 
sessile, and entire; the regular flowers having as many stamens as there are lobes to the 
corolla, and alternate with them; stigmas or branches of the style 2 ; pod one-celled, with 
many and usually very small seeds on the walls, usually in two lines. — Tonic, generally 
very bitter plants : none of them poisonous. Flowers commonly large and handsome. 

Leaves simple, opposite and sessile. Corolla with the lobes convolute, i. e. each with one 
edge in and one out, in the bud. 

Corolla wheel-shaped, 5- to 12-parted, white or pink, in cymes. Style 2-parted. 

(Two or three handsome-flowered species in salt marshes, and one or two 
on river-banks, &c., especially South), ( Sabbatia ) Sabbatia. 

Corolla funnel-form or bell-shaped, commonly blue. Style very short or none: stig¬ 
mas 2, broad, ( Gentiana) Gentian. 

Leaves simple, alternate or all from the root, round-heart-shaped, floating on the water, 
with very long footstalks, which bear near their summit a cluster of small 
white flowers, along with some spur-shaped bodies. Corolla 5-parted, the 
lobes folded inwards in the bud, ( Limnanthemum ) Floating-Heart. 

Leaves with 3 oblong leaflets; footstalks long, alternate, their base sheathing the thickish 
rootstock or the lower part of a scape, which bears a raceme of white 
flowers. Corolla 5-parted, the lobes white-bearded inside, their edges 
turned inwards in the bud. One species, in bogs, ( Menyanib.es) Buckbean. 

Gentian. Gentiana. 

* Stamens separate: no plaits or fringes between the lobes of the corolla. 

1. Five-flowered Gentian. Slender, branching; leaves lance-ovate; branches about 5-flowered; 

corolla light blue, hardly 1' long, with 5 pointed naked lobes. FI. late summer and autumn; as do 

all the species. G. quinqueflora. 

2. Fringed G. Leaves lance-shaped or lance-ovate; flowers single on a long naked stalk; corolla 

2' long, sky-blue, with 4 obovate beautifully fringed lobes. Low grounds. G. crimta. 

* * Anthers cohering with each other more or less: corolla with 5 plaited folds. 

3. Closed G. Stout, leafy to the top, the flowers in sessile clusters, terminal and in the axils of the 

upper lance-oblong leaves; corolla pale blue or purplish, rather club-shaped, with the mouth con¬ 
tracted, and with 5 fringe-toothed plaits, the lobes hardly any. G. Andrewsii. 

4. Soapwort G. The light blue corolla more open and bell-shaped, its lobes short and broad, but 

longer than the intervening plaits; otherwise much as No. 3. S. and W. G. Saponaria. 

5. Whitish G. Leaves lance-ovate with a heart-shaped clasping base; corolla dull white or yellowish, 

with lobes longer than the plaits. S. and W. G. alba. 

70. DOGBANE FAMILY. Order APO CYNACEiE. 

Plants with a milky and acrid juice, a tough inner bark, generally opposite and entire 
leaves, and regular flowers : corolla 5-lobed, the lobes convolute in the bud (one edge in, 
13 


188 


POPULAR FLORA. 


the other out) ; the 5 stamens on the corolla alternate with its lobes; the anthers generally 
more or less adherent to the stigma. Ovaries 2; but the stigmas, and often the styles also, 
united into one ; the fruit two separate pods. Seeds generally many, and with a tuft of 
down at one end. 

Corolla with a funnel-shaped tube and a wheel-shaped 5-parted border: style one. 

Leaves generally in who.rls. Shrub, with large rose-colored flowers, ( Nerium) ^Oleander. 

Leaves opposite, evergreen in the common creeping species. FI. blue, ( Vinca) ^Periwinkle. 

Leaves alternate, very many, narrow. Erect herbs with pale-blue salver-shaped flow¬ 
ers : seeds not tufted, (Amsdnia) Amsonia. 

Corolla bell-shaped, white or pinkish: style none. Herbs, with opposite leaves. ( Apocynum ) Dogbane. 

Dogbane. Apocynum. 

1. Spreading D. Branches of the low erect stem widely diverging; leaves ovate or oval; cymes few- 

flowered; lobes of corol¬ 
la recurved; tube shorter 
than the calyx. Thickets, 

&c. A. androscemifolium. 

2. Hemp D. or Indian Hemp. 

Stem and branches erect 
or ascending; cymes few- 
flowered; lobes of the co¬ 
rolla not recurved, the 
tube not longer than the 
calyx. A. cannabinum. 

466. Summit of a plant of Dogbane, 

No. 1, with flowers and pods. 

467. Flowers, enlarged. 

468. Flower with the corolla cut 
away, to show the stamens. 

469. The stamens taken away, to show 
the pistils; two ovaries, with their two 
large stigmas united into one mass. 

470. A seed, with iistuftof long hairs 
or down at one end. 

71. MILKWEED FAMILY. Order AS CLEPIAD ACEiE. 

Plants with milky juice, tough bark, and in other respects like the Dogbane family, but 
with the 5 short stamens all united by their filaments into a ring or tube, the anthers grown 
fast to the large stigma, and the grains of pollen in each cell cohering into a waxy or tough 
mass. Flowers in simple umbels. Pods a pair of many-seeded follicles: seeds furnished 
with a long tuft of silky down at one end (Fig. 229). The flowers in this family are 
curious, but are too difficult for the beginner. The two common genera may be distin¬ 
guished as follows: — 

Corolla 5-parted, reflexed: five hoods to the stamens, with a horn in each, ( Asclepias ) Milkweed. 
Corolla, &c. as in Milkweed, but the hoods without any horn, (Acerates) Green-Milkweed. 







POPULAR FLORA. 


189 


72. JESSAMINE FAMILY. Order JASMINACEJE. 

Shrubby, mostly climbing plants, with opposite and mostly compound (pinnate) leaves, 
and perfect flowers with a salver-shaped corolla of 5 or more lobes overlapping in the bud, 
but only 2 stamens. Ovary 2-celled, with 2 or 3 ovules erect from the base of each cell. 
No wild species; but in gardens and houses we have the common ( Jasminum ) ^Jessamine. 

73. OLIVE FAMILY. Order OLEACEiE. 

Shrubs or trees, with opposite leaves; the corolla, when there is any, 4-lobed, and the 
lobes valvate (edge to edge) in the bud, but the stamens only 2 and short: sometimes 
there are 4 distinct petals ; and all our species of Ash are without petals. Ovary 2-celled, 
with 2 ovules hanging from the top of each cell: the fruit often one-celled and one-seeded; 
either a stone-fruit, as in the Olive and Fringe-tree; a berry, as in Privet; apod, as in 
Lilac ; or a key, as in the Ash. 

Corolla salver-shaped or funnel-shaped, with a 4-lobed border: flowers perfect, in thick 
panicles. Leaves simple, entire. 

Corolla salver-shaped with a long tube: fruit a flat 4-seeded pod, ( Syringa) *Lilac. 

Corolla short, funnel-shaped; fruit a 1- or 2-seeded berry. Low shrub, ( Ligustrum) ^Privet. 
Corolla of 4 very long and narrow petals, barely united at the bottom. Drupe one-seeded. 

Low tree or shrub, with simple leaves, and slender drooping panicles of delicate 
snow-white blossoms, ( Chionanthus) Fringe-tree. 

Corolla none: even the calyx small or sometimes none: stamens 2, rarely 3 or 4, on the 
receptacle: fruit a key, winged at the top or all round, one-seeded. Trees, with 
opposite pinnate leaves, ( Fraxinus ) Ash. 


Lilac. Syringa. 

1. Common Lilac. Leaves more or less heart-shaped; flowers lilac or white, in spring. Cultivated: 

one of the commonest ornamental shrubs. S. vulgaris. 

2. Persian Lilac. Leaves oblong or lance-shaped; clusters more slender. Cultivated. S. Persica. 

Ash. Fraxinus. 

The flowers in all our species appear in early spring, in clusters, and are dioecious, or nearly so. 

* Key winged from the top only: leaflets stalked. 

1. White Ash. Shoots and stalks smooth; leaflets 7 to 9, pale (smooth or downy) beneath; body of 

the key marginless and blunt. F. Americana. 

2. Red Ash. Shoots and stalks velvety; leaflets 7 to 9, downy beneath; body of the key 2-edged, 

acute at the base, the wing long and narrow. F. pubescens. 

3. Green Ash. Smooth throughout; leaflets 5 to 9, green both sides; key as in No. 2. F. viridis. 

* * Key winged all round, oblong. 

4. Black Ash. Leaflets 7 to 11, sessile; oblong-lanceolate, tapering to a point, green both sides; no 

calyx to the fertile flowers. Swamps; common N. F. sambucifolia. 

5. Blue Asii. Branchlets square; leaflets 7 to 9, short-stalked, lance-ovate. W. F. quadrangulata. 


190 


POPULAR FLORA. 


III. Apctalous Division. 


74. BIRTHWOUT FAMILY. Order AKISTOLOCHIACE^E. 


Herbs or twining vines, with perfect and large flowers, the 



tube of the 3-lobed calyx 
coherent with the 6-celled 
and many-seeded ovary. 
Leaves mostly heart- 
shaped or kidney-shaped, 
and entire, on long foot¬ 
stalks, alternate, or else 
from the rootstock at the 
surface of the ground. 
Lobes of the calyx edge 
to edge in the bud, usu¬ 
ally dull-colored. 

471. Plant of Canada Asarum or 
Wild-Ginger, in flower. 472. Magni¬ 
fied flower divided lengthwise, and the 
calyx spread out flat. 473. Flower, 
with the lobes of the calyx cut away, 
and the ovary cut across. 474. A sep¬ 
arate stamen, more magnified ; outside 
view. 475. Magnified seed divided 
lengthwise. 


Stemless herbs, with a pair of leaves and a flower between them from the spicy-tasted 
and creeping rootstock: calyx short, 3-cleft or 3-lobed; stamens 12, with filaments, 
which are united only with the base of the thick 6-lobed style, and are pointed above 
the anthers, ( Asai'ura ) Wild-Ginger. 

Twining shrubs or else low herbs: calyx a crooked tube, with a narrow throat and a 
slightly 3-lobed spreading border: stamens 6, sessile on the outside of the 3 lobes of 
the sessile stigma, i. e. two anthers or 4 cells to each lobe, attached to the stigma 
by their whole length: fruit a 6-valved pod, filled with numerous flat seeds, 

(Aristolochia ) Birthwort. 

Birthwort. Aristolochia. 

1. Snakeroot B. or Virginia Snakeroot. Herb 8' to 15' high; Several stems from a tufted root, 

downy; flowers borne next the ground, in general shape much like the letter S; leaves oblong- 
lieart-shaped or halberd-shaped. Rich woods; becoming scarce. A. serpenfaria. 

2. Pipe-vine B. A tall woody climber, with rounded kidney-shaped leaves, 8' or 12' broad when 

full grown; flower IP long, curved like a Dutch pipe ; greenish outside, and with the short 
3-lobed border brown-purple within. Alleghany Mountains, or near them; and cultivated for 
arbors. A. Sipho. 






POPULAR FLORA. 


191 


75. MIRABILIS FAMILY'. Order NYCTAGINACEiE. 

Has some wild representatives far west and south, viz.: Oxybaphus, &c., with several 
flowers in a calyx-like involucre, the funnel-shaped calyx rose-purple, and exactly like a 
corolla. And in gardens Mirabilis or Four-o’Clock (so called from the flowers opening 
late in the afternoon) is common. Here there is only one flower in the bell-shaped invo¬ 
lucre, which exactly imitates a calyx, while the large funnel-shaped calyx is just like the 
corolla of a Morning-Glory. Stamens 5 : style one. Leaves opposite, heart-shaped, long- 
stalked. The 

Common Four-o’Clock or Mirabilis, from Mexico, well known in gardens, is M. Jalapa. 


76. POKE WEED FAMILY. Order PHYTOLACCACEJE. 

*■ Is represented with us by one, 
and that a very common, species of 

Pokeweed. Phytolacca. 

Sepals 5, rounded, concave, petal-like, 
white. Stamens 10, under the ovary. 

Ovary green, composed of 10 one- 
seeded ovaries united into one: styles 
10, short and separate. Fruit a dark 
crimson 10-seeded berry. A coarse 
rank herb, with a thick, acrid, and 
poisonous root, a large pithy stem, and 
alternate oblong leaves ; the flowers 
in racemes opposite the leaves. Low 
and rich ground, everywhere common; 
flowering all summer, ripening its 
abundant berries in autumn. 

P. decandra. 

476. Summit of a flowering branch of Poke- 

weed. 

477. Fruit-bearing branch. 

478. A flower, enlarged. 

479. Young fruit. 

480. Same, cut across. 

481. Seed divided lengthwise, and magnified. 

483. Embryo, more magnified. 



77. GOOSEFOOT FAMILY. Order CHENOPODIACE^E. 

Homely herbs, with mostly alternate leaves, without stipules, and no dry scaly bracts 
among the small and greenish flowers ; the calyx enclosing the one-celled and one-seeded 







192 


POPULAR FLORA. 


ovary, but not adhering to it, and bearing from one to five stamens. Styles 2 to 5, 
short. Weeds (several called Pigweeds), abounding in cultivated or waste grounds, and 
some are pot-herbs. The small flowers and fruits make them too difficult for the beginner. 
The following key will lead the student to the name of the principal common kinds. 

Leafless fleshy herbs, in salt marshes, with perfect flowers in fleshy spikes, (Salicornia) Samphire. 

Leafy herbs, with broad or broadish, generally tender leaves, not prickly: calyx wingless. 

Flowers perfect. 

In clusters or spiked heads: calyx becoming berry-like, altogether making a 

strawberry-like red pulpy fruit, ( Blitum ) Blite. 

In small sessile clusters collected in spikes or panicles: calyx dry and herba¬ 
ceous. 

Akene thick and hard, below adherent to the calyx. Leaves smooth, (J Beta) *Beet. 

Akene very thin and breaking away from the seed. Leaves often mealy. 

Pigweeds, (Chenopodium) Goosefoot. 

Flowers monoecious: the fertile ones single in the axils of the leaves. Sea-coast, and 

one rarely cultivated as a pot-herb, (A'tryrfex) ' Orache. 

Flowers dioecious, in spiked clusters: calyx over the fruit, with 2 to 4 horns or pro¬ 
jections: leaves arrow-shaped, (Spincicia ) ^Spinach. 

Leafy and much-branched plants on the sea-shore; the leaves awl-shaped and prickly- 

tipped : flowers perfect: calyx winged in fruit, ( Salsola ) Saltwort. 


78. AMARANTH FAMILY. Order AMARANTACEiE. 

Herbs, much like the last family in almost every character, except that the 
flowers are furnished with 3 or more dry and scale-like thin bracts : these are 
sometimes brightly colored, so as to make showy clusters or bunches, and, 
being dry, they do not wither after blossoming. The little one-seeded pod 
in many cases is a pyxis (242), that is, it opens round the middle, the upper 
part falling off, as a lid. The common species belong mainly to two genera: — 483 Po(J of Am 

..... aranth opening by 

Flowers in spiked or pamcled clusters, terminal or axillary: stamens 5 or 3, separate: «• Hd. 
little pod opening by a lid. To this belongs one kind of Pigweed, and the 
Prince’s Feather, Love-lies-bleeding, Coxcomb, &c., in gardens and 
enriched soil, (Amarantus) Amaranth. 

Flowers in a head: stamens 5, monadelphous, and the filaments 3-cleft, the middle lobe 

bearing the anther, ( Gomphrena) *Globe-Amaranth. 



79. BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. Order POLYGONACEiE. 

Herbs with alternate entire leaves, and mostly perfect flowers; with a calyx of 4 to 6 
sepals (separate or united at the base), and 3 to 9 stamens inserted on its base : ovary one- 
celled making a one-seeded akene; its styles or stigmas 2 or 3. Besides, this family may 
always be known by the stipules which form a sheath above each joint (as in Fig. 137). 
The watery juice is often sour, as in Rhubarb and Sorrel, sometimes sharp and biting. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


193 


Calyx of 5 (rarely 4) nearly similar sepals, all more or less petal-like. 

Stamens 4 to 9: akene generally small: cotyledons narrow, ( Polygonum) Knotweed. 

Stamens 8: styles 3: akene triangular, shaped like a beechnut, much longer than the 
calyx: cotyledons very broad and folded in the mealy albumen: root annual: 
leaves nearly halberd-shaped: flowers white, corymbed, ( Fagopyrum ) ^Buckwheat. 

Calyx of 6 sepals, and 

All alike and petal-like (white): stamens 9: styles 3, {Rheum) ^Rhubarb. 

Three outer ones herbaceous and spreading: three inner larger, especially after flow¬ 
ering, Avhen they close over the triangular akene: flowers dioecious: leaves 
sour, eared or halberd-sliaped, {Rumex, § Acetosella) Sorrel. 

Flowers perfect or polygamous: leaves bitter: coarse herbs, {Rumex) Dock. 

Knotweed. Polygonum. 

* Flowers single or several together in the axils of the leaves, greenish or whitish: sheaths (stipules) 

cut-fringed or torn into narrow shreds. 

1. Common Knotweed, Knotgrass, or Goosegrass. Spreading on the ground, small; leaves 

sessile, lance-shaped or oblong, pale; a variety has nearly upright stems and oblong or oval leaves. 
The commonest weed in yards and waste places. P. aviculare. 

2. Slender K. Upright, somewhat branched; leaves linear, acute, sheaths fringed. Dry soil. P. tenue. 

* * Flowers in terminal heads, spikes, or racemes. 

•»- Not twining nor climbing, and leaves not heart-shaped nor arrow-shaped: calyx petal-like and 

5-parted, except in No. 10. 

3. Oriental K. or Prince’s Feather. Tall annual, 4° to 7° high; leaves ovate; spikes of rose- 

colored flowers long and nodding; stamens 7; akene flattish. Gardens. P. orientate. 

4. Water K. Stems floating in water, or rooting in mud, or upright; leaves lance-shaped or oblong; 

spike thick and short; flowers rose-red? stamens 5; styles 2. P. amphibium. 

5. Pennsylvania K. Stem upright, 1° to 3° high ; leaves lance-shaped ; spike oblong, thick, erect, 

its peduncle beset with club-shaped bristles or glands; flowers rose-colored; stamens 8; akene 
flat. Moist ground. P. Pennsylvanicum. 

6. Lady’s-Thumb K. Stems, &c. like the last and next, but no bristles on the peduncle; leaves with 

a darker spot on the upper side; spike short and thick, erect; flowers greenish-purple; stamens 
6. Very common in waste places. P. Persicaria. 

7. Smartweed or Water-Pepper K. Upright, annual, 1° or 2° high, very acrid and biting to the 

taste; leaves and also the greenish sepals marked with fine transparent dots; spikes short but 
loose, drooping; akene flattish or bluntly triangular. Moist ground, common in waste places, 
yards, and near dwellings. P. Hydropiper. 

8. AVild Smartweed K. Upright, 1° to 3° high from a perennial root, biting like the last, and the 

leaves dotted; spikes very slender, erect, whitish or flesh-color; stamens 8; styles 3; akene sharply 
triangular. Wet places. P. acre. 

9. Mild Water-Pepper K. Upright, 1° to 3° high; often creeping at the base and rooting in water; 

leaves roughish, not biting, narrowly lance-shaped; spikes slender, erect, rose-color; stamens 8; 
style 3-cleft at the top; akene sharply triangular. Shallow water. P. hydropiperoides. 

10. Virginia K. Stem 2° to 4° high, angled; leaves large, ovate or lance-ovate, taper-pointed; flow- 


194 


POPULAR FLORA. 


ers scattered in a long and naked slender spike; calyx greenish, 4-parted; stamens 5; styles 2, 
bent down in fruit. Thickets. P. Virginianum. 

Somewhat climbing, or supported by recurved sharp prickly bristles on the strong angles of the 
stems, &c.; flowers white or flesh-color in small racemes or heads; root annual. The prickly 
angles cut like a saw, whence the plants are called Tear-Thumb. 

11. Arrow-leaved K. Leaves arrow-shaped (Fig. 100), short-stalked; akene 3-angled. P. sagittatum. 

12. Halberd-leaved Iv. Leaves halberd-shaped (Fig. 102), long-stalked ; akene flattish. Low 

grounds. P . arifblium. 

-i- -i- Twining annuals, with smooth stems and greenish or whitish flowers in panicled racemes; 
leaves heart-shaped and partly halberd-shaped. 

13. Climbing Iv. Smooth, climbing high over shrubs, &c.; racemes leafy; 3 of the calyx-lobes more 

or less winged in fruit. Thickets in low ground. P. dumetoi’um. 

14. Bindweed Iv. Low, stems roughish; racemes corymbed; three of the calyx-lobes ridged in the 

middle. Cult, and waste grounds. P. Convolvulus. 

80. LAUREL FAMILY. Order LAURACEiE. 

Trees or shrubs, with spicy bark and leaves; the latter marked with transparent dots 
under a magnifving-glass, alternate and simple; the calyx of C petal-like sepals. Stamens 

9 or 12 on the very bot¬ 
tom of the calyx ; the 
anthers opening by up¬ 
lifted valves. Pistil sim¬ 
ple, with a one-celled 
ovary, in fruit forming 
a berry or drupe, one- 
seeded. Flowers gener¬ 
ally polygamous or dioe¬ 
cious in spring.—Avery 
well-marked family, most¬ 
ly in hot countries, but 
we possess two or three 

with two glands at the base , the anther openingby two large and two small valves. 487. Pistil, . 

with the ovary divided to show the ovule hanging from the top. 488. Leaf and cluster of fruit. representatives. 

489. Lower half of fruit, cut across. A 

Flowers perfect : stamens 9, with good anthers, and 3 sterile ones. Tree, with entire 

oblong leaves; common South, ( Persea ) Red-Bay. 

Flowers dioecious or nearly so, greenish-yellow: stamens 9, about 3 of them with yel¬ 
low glands at the base of the filaments (Fig. 486). 

Anthers 4-celled and 4-valved. Tree: flowers in stalked corymbs, appearing with 

the leaves; some of the latter 3-lobed, ( Sassafras ) Sassafras. 

Anthers 2-celled and opening by a single valve to each cell. Shrub: flowers in ses¬ 
sile clusters, appearing earlier than the entire leaves, ( Benzoin ) Sricebush. 










POPULAR FLORA. 


195 


81. MEZEREUM FAMILY. Order THYMELEACEiE. 

Shrubs, with very tough and acrid bark; entire generally alternate leaves; and perfect 
flowers, with a tubular 
calyx colored like a co¬ 
rolla, bearing 8 or 10 
stamens, free from the 
simple pistil. Ovary one- 
celled, one-ovuled, mak¬ 
ing a berry in fruit.—We 
have one wild plant of 
the family ; Daphne Me- 
zereum is a hardy low 
shrub in gardens, and D. 
odora in houses. Flowers 
appearing earlier than 
the leaves. 

490. Flowering’branchlet of Leath- 
erwood. 491. Branch with foliage 
nnd fruit. 492. A flower, magnified. 

493. Same, more magnified, the calyx 
laid open. 

Calyx salver-shaped or funnel-shaped, generally rose-color, the border 4-lobed: stamens 8, 

in two sets, included; filaments hardly any, ( Daphne) *Dapiine. 

Calyx tubular, pale yellow, with no spreading border, obscurely 4-toothed: stamens 8, 

with long protruded filaments, ( Dirca ) Leatherwood. 



82. NETTLE FAMILY. Order URTICACEJE. 

Monoecious, dioecious, or barely polygamous herbs, shrubs, or trees, with stipules, and a 
regular calyx, free from the ovary, which forms a one-seeded fruit. Divides into four dis¬ 
tinct subfamilies which might be reckoned as families, viz.: — 

I. ELM Subfamily. Trees, with alternate simple leaves, and polygamous or often nearly perfect 
flowers: styles or long stigmas 2. 

Ovary 2-celled, a hanging ovule in each cell: stamens 4 to 9. Flowers earlier than the 

leaves. Fruit a thin key, winged all round, one-seeded (Fig. 207), ( Ulmus) Elm. 

Ovary one-celled, with one hanging ovule: stamens 5 or 6. Fruit a small drupe. Leaves 

ovate or heart-shaped, ( Celtis) Hackberry. 

II. BREADFRUIT Subfamily. Trees, with a milky or colored juice, and alternate leaves; the 

flowers in heads or catkin-like spikes, the fertile ones fleshy in fruit, or both kinds in a fleshy receptacle. 

Styles 1 or 2: ovary becoming an akene in fruit. Inner bark often tough and fibrous. 

• ✓ 

Flowers, of both kinds mixed, enclosed in a pear-shaped fleshy receptacle like a rose-hip 

which is pulpy when ripe, (Ficus) *Fig. 















196 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Flowers monoecious, both kinds in separate catkin-like spikes; the calyx, &c. in the fer¬ 
tile sort becoming fleshy and eatable, making a berried multiple fruit (248, 

Fig. 223). Stamens 4. Styles 2, { Morus ) Mulberry. 

Flowers dioecious: the fertile ones collected in a close and round head which is fleshy in 
fruit. Stamens 4. Style 1. 

Sterile flowers in spikes. Leaves round-ovate or heart-shaped, rough above, soft- 

downy beneath, some of them palmately lobed, {Brousson'etia) *Paper-Mulberry. 

Sterile flowers in racemes. Leaves oblong, smooth above, entire; branchlets spiny, 

{Macliira) * Osage-Orange. 

III. NETTLE Subfamily. Herbs (in this country), with opposite or alternate leaves, a tough 
fibrous bark, and a colorless juice. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, in spikes, racemes, &c., not in 
catkins. Stamens of the same number as the sepals. Ovary one-celled, and style or stigma only one; 
fruit an akene. 

Plants beset with stinging bristles. 

Leaves opposite : sepals 4 in both kinds of flowers: stigma a little tuft, ( Urfica) Nettle. 

Leaves alternate: sepals 5 in the sterile, 4 unequal or 2 in the fertile, flowers: stigma 

awl-shaped, {Laportea) Wood-Nettle. 

Plants destitute of stinging hairs, and 

Very smooth: leaves opposite: sepals 3 or 4, separate: stigma a tuft, {Pilea) Clearweed. 

Smooth or hairy: leaves often alternate: calyx in the fertile flowers a cup with a 
narrow mouth enclosing the ovary. 

Stigma long and thread-shaped: flower-clusters naked, in spikes, {Bcehm'eria) False-Nettle. 

Stigma a little tuft: flowers in axillary cymes or clusters, accompanied by 

leafy bracts, {Parietana) Pellitory. 

IV. HEMP Subfamily. Herbs, with dioecious flowers, a colorless juice, fibrous tough bark, and 
opposite, or sometimes alternate, palmately-lobed or compound roughish leaves. Sterile flowers in 
compound racemes or panicles, with 5 sepals and 5 stamens. Fertile flowers crowded, and with only 
one sepal, which embraces the ovary and akene: stigmas 2, long. 

Herb erect, annual: leaves of 5 to 7 lance-shaped toothed leaflets. Stamens drooping. 

Fertile flowers in spiked clusters, each with a narrow bract, ( Cannabis) Hemp. 

Herb twining: root perennial: leaves heart-shaped and lobed. Fertile flowers in short 
and scaly catkins, with broad and thin bracts, in fruit making a sort of 
membranaceous cone, {Eumulus) Hop. 

83. PLANE-TREE FAMILY. Order PLATANACEiE. 

This consists only of the genus 

Plane-Tree. Pldtanus. 

Flowers monoecious, in separate round catkin-like heads. No calyx nor corolla to either kind. 
Sterile flowers consisting of short stamens and club-shaped scales intermixed: fertile flowers, of little 
scales and ovaries, which become club-shaped akenes, covered below with long hairs. Style awl- 
shaped, simple. Trees, with colorless juice, alternate palmately-lobed leaves and sheathing stipules. 
Only one species in this country, viz.: — 

American P., Sycamore, or Buttonwood. A well-known tree by river-banks. P . ocddentalis . 


POPULAR FLORA. 


197 


84. WALNUT FAMILY. Order JU GLAND ACE JE. 

Timber and nut trees, with alternate pinnate leaves, no stipules; the sterile flowers in 
hanging catkins and with an irregular calyx; the fertile ones single or few together at the 
end of a shoot; their calyx coherent with the ovary, and 4-toothed at its summit. Fruit 
a kind of stone-fruit; the outer part becoming dry when ripe, and forming a husk, the 
stone incompletely 2-celled or 4-celled, but with only one ovule and seed. The whole 
kernel is a great embryo, with the cotyledons separated, lobed, and crumpled. — Only 
two genera: — 

Catkins of the sterile flowers single; the bracts or scales united with the calyx: stamens 
8 to 40. Fertile flowers with 4 small petals between the teeth of the calyx: short 
styles and stigmas 2, fringed: husk of the fruit thin, and not separating into valves 
or regular pieces. Bark and bruised leaves strong-scented and staining brown. Leaf- 
buds nearly naked, ( Juglans ) Walnut. 

Catkins 3 or more on one peduncle: stamens 3 to 8; anthers almost sessile. No petals in 
the fertile flowers: stigma large, 4-lobed. Husk of the fruit splitting into four pieces 
or valves, which separate from the smooth stone or shell. Wood very hard and 
tough. Leaf-buds scaly (Fig. 55), ( Carya) Hickory. 

Walnut. Juglans. 

1. Black Walnut. Leaves and stalks smoothish; leaflets many, lance-ovate, taper-pointed; fruit 

round, the thin husk drying on the very rough stone. Common W. J. nigra. 

2. Butternut, or Gray-barked W. Leaves, stalks, and oblong fruit clammy-downy when young, 

the stone with more ragged ridges, and tree smaller than No. 1. J. cinerea. 

3. True or English W. Smooth; leaflets only about 9, oblong; fruit round; husk separating from 

the thin and nearly smooth stone. Cultivated, from the South of Europe. J. regia. 

Hickory. Carya. 

* Fruit and stone round or roundish. 

1. Shagbark H. (also called Shellbark or Sweet H.) Bark on the trunk shaggy and scaling 

off; leaflets generally 5, three of them lance-obovate, the lower pair smaller and oblong-lanceolate, 
finely serrate; husk thick; stone roundish, thick or thin; seed very sweet: furnishes the hickory- 
nuts of the market. C. alba. 

2. Mockernut H. Bark cracked on the larger trunks ; leaflets 7 to 9, roughish-downy beneath, 

slightly serrate, oblong-lanceolate; catkins hairy; husk and stone very thick; seed sweetish but 
small. Common S. and W. C. iomentosa. 

3. Pignut H. Bark close and smooth; leaflets 5 to 7, smooth, lance-ovate, serrate; fruit pear-shaped 

or obovate, the husk and stone rather thin; seed sweetish or bitterish, small. C. glabra. 

4. Bitternut or Swamp H. Bark of trunk smooth; buds little scaly: leaflets 7 to 11, lance-oblong, 

smooth; husk and stone of the fruit thin and tender; seed very bitter. Wet woods. C. amara. 
* * Fruit and thin stone narrowly oblong: husk thin. 

5. Pecan-nut H. Leaflets 13 or 15,oblong-lanceolate, oblique, serrate; stone olive-sliaped, thin; seed 

very sweet. W. & S. C. olivczformis. 


198 


POPULAR FLORA. 


85. OAK FAMILY. Order CUPULIFERJE. 

Trees or shrubs, with alternate and simple straight-veined leaves, deciduous stipules, and 
monoecious flowers; the sterile flowers in slender catkins (or in head-like clusters in the 
Beech); the fertile flowers surrounded with an involucre which forms a cup, bur, or bag 
around the nut. 

Fertile flowei*s scattered, or 2 or 3 together, their 

Involucre one-flowered, of many little scales, forming a cup around the base of the 

hard and roundish nut or acoi-n (Fig. 205), ( Quercus) Oak. 

Involucre containing 2 or 3 flowers, becoming a very prickly and closed bur enclos¬ 
ing the nuts, and splitting into 4 thick pieces. 

Nuts 1 to 3, roundish or flattish, thin-shelled. Sterile catkins long, ( Castanea ) Chestnut. 

Nuts 2, sharply 3-angled. Sterile catkins like a head-like cluster, (Fagus) Beech. 

Involucre a leafy cup, lobed or torn at the end, longer than the bony nut, ( Corylus) Hazel. 

Fertile flowers also collected in a kind of catkin. Nut small like an akene. 

Involucre an open 3-lobed leaf, 2-flowered, ( Carp'inus) Hornbeam. 

Involucre a closed bladdery bag, one-flowei*ed, the whole catkin making a fruit like 

a hop in general appearance, ( Ostrya) Hop-Hornbeam. 

Oak. Quercus. 

* Acorn ripening the first year, therefore boi'ne on shoots of the season: cups stalked, except in 

No. 2: kernel generally sweet-tasted. 

1. Overcup or Bur Oak. Leaves obovate, sinuate-pinnatifid, whitish-downy beneath; acorn 1' or 

IP long, in a deep cup with a mossy-fringed border. Q. macrocarpa. 

2. Post Oak. Leaves oblong, pale and rough above, grayish-downy beneath, pinnatifid, with 5 to 7 

blunt lobes; cup saucer-shaped, much shorter than the acorn. Small tree. Q. oUusiloba. 

3. White Oak. Leaves smooth when full grown, pale beneath, pinnatifid; the lobes 5 to 9, oblong or 

linear, entire; cup much shorter than the oval or oblong acorn. Rich, woods. Q. alba. 

4. Swamp Chestnut-Oak. Leaves obovate, whitish-downy beneath, coarsely and bluntly toothed 

or sinuate; cup thick,hemispherical, with stout or pointed scales; acorn oval, 1' long. Q. Prims. 

5. Yellow Chestnut-Oak. Leaves lance-oblong, or oblong, acute, whitish, but scarcely downy 
' beneath, rather sharply and evenly toothed; cup thin, and acorn smaller than in No. 4. Rich 

woods. Q. Castanea. 

6. Chinquapin Oak. Much like No. 4, but a mere shrub, 2° to 6° high, with a thin cup and a smaller 

acorn. Sandy, barren soil. Q. prindides. 

* * Acorn ripening in the autumn of the second year; ripe fruit therefore on wood two years old, 

sessile: kernel bitter. 
h- Leaves entire or nearly so, narrow. 

7. Live Oak. Leaves thick, evergreen, hoary beneath, oblong, small. Sea-coast, S. Q. virens. 

8. Willow Oak. Leaves light green, smooth, lance-linear, tapering, 3' or 4' long. S. & W. Q. Phellos. 

9. Shingle or Laurel Oak. Leaves shining above, rather downy beneath, lance-oblong, thickish; 

cup saucer-shaped; acorn globular. Common S. & W. Q. imbricaria. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


199 


*i- Leaves or some of them a little lobed, broader upwards. 

10. Water Oak. Leaves smooth and shining, spatulate or wedge-obovate, with a tapering base; 

cup very short; acorn globular. Swamps, S. Q. aqudtica. 

11. Black-Jack Oak. Leaves thick and large, broadly wedge-shaped, and with 3 or 5 obscure 

lobes at the summit, shining above, rusty-downy beneath, the lobes or teeth bristle-pointed. 
Small tree, in barrens. Q. nigra. 

h— h— h— Leaves pinnatifid or lobed, long-stalked, the lobes or teeth bristle-pointed. 

12. Bear or Scrub Oak. Leaves wedge-obovate, slightly about 5-lobed, whitish-downy beneath. 

A crooked shrub, 3° to 8° high; in barrens and rocky woods. Q. ilicifolia. 

13. Spanish Oak. Leaves grayish-downy beneath, narrow above, and with 3 to 5 irregular and nar¬ 
row often curved lobes; acorn very short. Dry soil, S. & E. A fine tree. Q.falccita. 

14. Quercitron Oak. Leaves rusty-downy when young, becoming nearly smooth when old, oblong- 

obovate, sinuate-pinnatifid; cup top-shaped, coarse-scaly; acorn globular or depressed. Large 
tree; the inner bark thick and yellow, used for dyeing. Q. tinctona. 

15. Scarlet Oak. Very like the last, but the oval or oblong leaves smooth and shining, deeply pin¬ 

natifid (turning deep scarlet in autumn), the lobes cut-toothed; acorn rather longer than wide. 
Large tree, common in rich woods. Q. coccinea. 

16. Red Oak. Leaves smooth, pale beneath, oblong or rather obovate, with 4 to 6 short lobes on 

each side; acorn oblong-oval, 1' long, with a short saucer-shaped cup of fine scales. Common 
tree in rocky woods, &c. Q. rubra. 

17. Pin or Swamp Spanish Oak. Leaves smooth and bright green on both sides, deeply pin¬ 
natifid, oblong ; the lobes diverging, cut and toothed, acute; acorn globular, only p long. Low 

grounds, N. Q. qialustris. 


86. BIRCH FAMILY. Order BETULACEiE. 

Monoecious trees, with simple serrate leaves, and both kinds of flowers in scaly catkins 
(Fig. 146), two or three blossoms under each scale. Sterile flowers each with 4 stamens 
and a small calyx: fertile flowers with a 2-celled ovary bearing 2 long stigmas, and in fruit 
becoming a scale-like akene or small key. Only two genera: — 

Sterile flowers with a calyx of one scale: fertile flowers 3 under each 3-lobed bract; each 
consisting of a naked ovary, in fruit becoming a broad-winged little key. Bark and 
twigs aromatic, ( Betula ) Birch. 

Sterile flowers generally with a 4-parted calyx: fertile catkins short and thick, with hard 

scales, not falling off: fruit generally wingless, ( Alnus ) Alder. 

Birch. Betula. 

1. White Bircii. A small and slender tree, with white outer bark; leaves triangular, very taper- 

pointed, on long and slender stalks. Common E. B. alba. 

2. Paper B. A large tree, with white outer bark, peeling off in papery layers, and ovate or heart- 

shaped leaves. Common N. B. p a pyracea. 

3. River B. Tree, with ovate and angled acutish leaves, on short stalks, a brownish close bark, 

and short woolly fertile catkins. Common S. & W. B. nigra. 


200 


POPULAR FLORA. 


4. Cherry or Sweet B. Tree, with heart-ovate and pointed leaves, downy on the veins beneath, 
and a close bark, bronze-colored on the twigs, which are spicy-tasted, like the foliage of Check- 
erberry. Common N. v B. lenta. 

87. SWEET-GALE FAMILY. Order MYRICACEJE. 

Shrubs (generally low), with fragrant alternate leaves; and with catkins much as in the 
Birch family, but short and with only one naked blossom under each scale; the ovary 
forming a little nut or dry drupe. 

Flowers monoecious: fertile catkins round and bur-like: fruit a smooth little nut. Leaves 

lance-linear, pinnatifid. Fern-like, whence the common name, ( Comptonia) Sweet-Fern. 
Flowers dioecious: scales of the fertile catkins falling off, and leaving only the small 
round fruits, which are incrusted with wax, and so appear like drupes. Leaves 
entire or serrate, (Myrica). 

One species in wet grounds, N., with wedge-lanceolate pale leaves, ( M . Gale) Sweet-Gale. 

One on the sea-coast with lance-oblong, shining leaves, and waxy fruit, (M. cerifera) Bayberry. 

88. WILLOW FAMILY. Order SALICACE^E. 

. Dioecious trees or shrubs, with both 
kinds of blossoms in catkins (often 
earlier than the foliage); the flowers 
naked (without any calyx or corolla), 
one sort of two or more stamens 
under a scaly bract; the other of a 
one-celled pistil with two styles or 
stigmas, making a many-seeded pod: 
the seeds bearing a long tuft of down. 
Leaves alternate and simple: wood 
soft and light: bark bitter. — The 
Willows are of very many species, 
and are much too difficult for the 
beginner. 

494. Shoot and catkin of sterile flowers of the Com¬ 
mon White Willow. 495. A scale separated, with its 
flower, consisting of two stamens and a little gland, 
magnified. 496. Shoot and fertile catkin of the same. 
497. A pistillate flower with its scale and gland, mag¬ 
nified. 

Scales of the catkins entire: stamens 2 to 6: stigmas short: leaves narrow, ( Salix) Willow. 

Scales of the catkins cut-lobed: stamens 8 to 40: stigmas long: leaves broad. Scaly leaf- 

buds covered with a resinous varnish, ( Populus) Poplar. 







POPULAR FLORA. 


201 


89. PINE FAMILY. Order CONIFERS. 

The only familiar family of Gymnospermous plants (218, 

250), consisting of trees or shrubs, with resinous juice, mostly 
awl-shaped or needle-shaped leaves, and monoecious or dioecious 
flowers of a very simple sort, and collected in catkins, except in 
Yew. In that the fertile flower is single at the end of the 
branch. No calyx nor corolla, and no proper pistil. Ovules 
and seeds naked. Sterile flowers of a few stamens or anthers, 
fixed to a scale. Cotyledons often more than one pair, some¬ 
times as many as 9 or 12, in a whorl. — For illustrations, see 
Fig. 49, 50, 134, 196, 197, 224 to 226, and 498, 499. —This 
family comprises some of our most important timber-trees, and 
the principal evergreen forest-trees of Northern climates. It 
consists of three well-marked subfamilies : — 

I. PINE Subfamily. Fertile flowers many in a catkin, which in fruit becomes a strobile or cone 
(250); the scales of which are open pistils (each in the axil of a bract), with a pair of ovules or seeds 
borne on the base of each. Seeds scaling off with a wing. Cones ovate or oblong. Leaf-buds scaly. 
Flowers monoecious. 

Leaves 2 to 5 in a cluster, from the axil of a thin scale, evergreen, needle-shaped. Cone 

with thick or sometimes thin scales, ( Pinus) Pine. 

Leaves many in a cluster (Fig. 134) on side spurs, and also scattered along the shoots of 

the season, needle-shaped, falling in autumn. Cone with thin scales, ( Larix ) Larch. 

Leaves all scattered along the shoots, evergreen, linear or needle-shaped. Cone with t hi n 

scales, (Abies) Fir. 

II. CYPRESS Subfamily. Fertile flowers few, in a rounded catkin, formed of scales which are 
generally thickened at the top, and without any bracts, bearing one or more ovules at the bottom. 
Leaves scale-like or awl-shaped. Leaf-buds without any scales. 

Flowers monoecious. Cone dry, opening at maturity. 

Leaves deciduous and delicate, linear, 2-ranked. Cone round and woody, each shield¬ 
shaped scale 2-seeded, ( Taxodium) Bald-Cypress. 

Leaves evergreen, small, scale-like and awl-shaped (of two shapes). 

Cone woody and round; the scales shield-shaped, ( Cupressus) Cypress.* 

Cone of a few oblong and nearly flat loose scales (Fig. 498), ( Thuja) Arbor-vit^e.* 

Flowers dioecious, or sometimes monoecious. Fruit composed of a few closed scales, 

which become pulpy and form a sort of false berry, ( Juniperus) Juniper. 

III. YEW Subfamily. Buds scaly: leaves linear. Fertile flower single at the end of a branch, 

ripening into a nut-like seed. This is enclosed in an open and at length pulpy, berry-like red cup, in 
our only genus, viz. ( Taxus) Yew. 

* Our only Cupressus is C. thyoides, the White Cedar, rather common South. The Arbor-vitje, 
Thuja occidentalism so common North, and cultivated for evergreen hedges, is also called White Cedar. 
Our Red Cedar is a Juniper. 



498 499 


498. Fertile flowers, or young cone, 
of Arbor-Vitse, enlarged. 499. Inside 
view of one of the scales and its pair 
of naked ovules, more magnified. 



202 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Pine. Pinus. 

* Leaves 2 or 3 in a sheath, rigid: bark of tree robgh: scales of the cones woody, thickened on the 

back at the end, and commonly tipped with a prickly point. 

1. Jersey or Scrub Pine. Leaves in twos, only about 2' long. A straggling tree, S. & E. P. inops. 

2. Red Pine (wrongly called Nonoay Pine ); leaves in twos, 5' or 6' long; scales of the cones not 

pointed. A large tree, N. P. resinosa. 

3. Yellow Pine. Leaves slender, in twos or threes, 3' to 5' long; cones small, their scales tipped 

with a weak prickly point. P. mitis. 

4. Pitch Pine. Leaves rigid, dark green, in threes, 3' to 5' long; cones with a stout prickly point 

(Fig. 224). Common N. P. rigida. 

5. Loblolly Pine. Leaves in threes, 6' to 10' long, light green; cones 3' to 5' long. Light or ex¬ 

hausted soil. S. P. Taedci. 

6. Long-leayed Pine. Leaves in threes, 8' to 11' long, dark green; cones 6' to 8' long. Common 

S. & E. P. australis. 

* * Leaves 5 together, slender: bark of young tree smooth: scales of cone naked and not thickened. 

7. White Pine. Leaves pale green; cones narrow, 4' or 5' long, hanging. A large tree, in moist 

woods North, with soft light wood. P. Strobus. 

Larch. Larix. 

1. American Larch or Tamarack. Leaves very slender, short; cones not over 1' long, of few 

rounded scales. Swamps, N. L. Americana. 

2. European Larch. A cultivated tree, with longer leaves and much larger cones than our wild 

species, the scales three times as many. L. Europcea. 

Fir or Spruce. Abies. 

* Cones upright on short side-shoots, falling into pieces when ripe, the scales separating from the axis; 

leaves flat, becoming more or less 2-ranked, whitish beneath. 

1. Balsam Fir. Leaves narrowly linear; cones cylindrical, 3' or 4' long, 1' thick, bluish. Damp 

woods and swamps, N. A. balsamea. 

* * Cones hanging from the ends of branches, not falling to pieces. 

2. Hemlock Spruce. Leaves linear, flat, V long, 2-ranked; cones oval, V long. Hills. A. Canadensis. 

3. Black Spruce. Leaves needle-shaped, 4-sided, not 2-ranked, uniformly green; cones ovate, 1' to 

IP long, with thin edged scales. Swamps and cold woods. A. nigra. 

4. White or Single Spruce. Cones oblong-cylindrical, 1' or 2' long, the scales with thickish edges: 

otherwise nearly like the last: found only at the North. A. alba. 

6. Norway Spruce. Cones cylindrical, 5' to 7' long; leaves ( longer than in our wild species. A 
handsomer tree, from Europe, now commonly planted as an evergreen. A. excelsa. 

Juniper. Juniperus. 

1. Common Juniper. Shrub spreading; leaves in whorls of three, linear-awl-shaped, prickly-pointed, 

green beneath, white above; berries dark purple. Dry hills, N. J. communis. 

2. Savin J. or Red Cedar. Shrub or tree; leaves small and much crowded, awl-shaped and loose 

on vigorous shoots; on others smaller, scale-like, and closely overlying each other in 4 ranks; 
berries purplish with a white bloom. Dry hills. Wood reddish, very durable. J. Virginiana. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


20.3 


CLASS II. —ENDOGENS OR MONOCOTYLEDONS. 

Stem having the wood in threads or bundles, interspersed among the pith or 
cellular part, not forming a ring or layer, and not increasing by annual layers. 

Leaves parallel-veined, not branching and forming meshes of network. To this 
some Arums, Trillium, Greenbrier, &c. are exceptions, having more or less netted 
veins. 



500. Endogenous stem of one year old, shown in a Corn-stalk. 50t. One of several years old, of Palmetto. 

Parallel-veined leaves of the two kinds: 502. that of Lily of the Valley ; 503. one of Calla 504. Magnified 
section of the seed of Iris, showing the small monocotyledonous embryo. 505. Plantlet of Ins growing lrom 
the seed. 

Flowers with their parts mostly three or six, never five. 

Fmbryo monocotyledonous, i. e. of only one true seed-leaf: so in 
germination the leaves are all alternate or one above another. 

Except the Palmetto and one or two Yuccas at the South (Fig. 

79), and some Greenbriers, all the Endogens of this country are herbs. 

In warmer climates there are many Palms and other woody plants of the class, all 
having an appearance very different from our common trees and shrubs (113,114). 

14 





















































204 


POPULAR FLORA, 


KEY TO THE FAMILIES OR ORDERS OF CLASS II. 


I* Spadiceous Division. Flowers collected on a spadix (184), i. e. sessile and crowded in a spike 
or head on a thickened axis, and with or without a spathe or enwrapping bract (185). 

Trees or shrubs, with simple stems; the flowers having calyx and corolla, Palm Family, 205 

Herbs, the small and crowded flowers either naked or with a small perianth. 

Spadix surrounded by a large spathe: flowers generally naked: fruit a berry,) 

Spadix without a spathe: perianth of 6 pieces, J Arum F. 205 

Spadix without any proper spathe: perianth none: fruit an akene, Cat-tail F. 206 

Spadix (as it might be called) raised above a small spathe, covered with blue and 

tubular, 6-lobed flowers. Belongs to the next division, Pickerel-weed F. 208 


II. Petaloideous Division. Flowers not on a spadix and not enclosed by glumes or chaffy or scale¬ 

like bracts (as in Grasses and Sedges), but having a calyx and corolla, or a 6-leaved or 6-lobed 
(rarely 4-leaved) perianth colored like a corolla. 

Perianth free from the ovary, that is, inserted underneath the ovary, and 
Of 3 green or greenish sepals and 3 distinct and colored petals. 

Pistils many, in a ring or a head, making akenes, Water-Plantain F. 206 

Pistil 1: styles or sessile stigmas 3. Leaves whorled, veiny, Trillium F. 206 

Pistil and slender style 1 : leaves alternate, parallel-veined, Spiderwort F. 207 

Of mostly 6 petal-like leaves in two ranks, three outside and three inside, or else 6- 

(rarely 4-) lobed, all colored alike. 

Stamens only 3, or 6 and the three on one side of the flower much shorter than 

the rest, Pickerel-weed F. 208 

Stamens 6, or as many as the divisions of the perianth, all alike. 

Anthers turned outwards, i. e. on the outer side of the filament. 

Leaves in whorls: flowers perfect: long stigmas 3, Indian Cucumber-root, 207 
Leaves alternate, and with side tendrils, netted-veined between the ribs: 

flowers dioecious: styles or sessile stigmas 3, Greenbrier F. 208 

Leaves alternate, without tendrils: flowers perfect or polygamous: styles 

3 or 3-cleft, Colchicum F. 209 

Anthers turned inwards, i. e. on the inner side of the filament: style 1: 

stigmas 1 or 3, Lily F. 209 

Perianth adherent to the ovary below, and therefore apparently borne on it. 

Stamens 6: anthers turned inwards. Flowers regular or nearly so, % Amaryllis F. 213 

Stamens 3: anthers turned outwards. Flowers often irregular, Iris F. 214 

Stamens only one or two and united with or borne on the style. Flowers irregular, of 

singular shapes, i Orchis F. 215 

III. Glumaceous Division. Flowers not on a spadix, and without any corolla-like perianth, but 
with glumes , i. e. thin scales, such as the chaff or husk of Grain and Grasses. Stems rush-like 
or straw-like. 

Glumes 6 in a whorl to each flower, like a calyx, Rush F. 215 

Glume one to each flower, the flower in its axil. Flowers collected into heads or spikes, Sedge F. 216 

Glumes 2 or 4 to each flower, in two sets, Grass F. 216 


POPULAR FLORA. 


205 


I. Spadiceous Division. 

90. PALM FAMILY. Order PALMiE. 

Although some, like the Dwarf Palmettos of the Southern States, make only rootstocks 
not rising out of the ground, most Palms form trees, with a simple, unbranched, cylindrical 
trunk, growing by the terminal bud only, and always surmounted by a crown of large and 
peculiar, long-petioled leaves. These are fan-shaped in the Palmetto (Fig. 79), pinnate 
in the Date-Palm, &c. The flowers burst forth from a spathe; are small, but generally 
perfect, and furnished with a perianth of 6 parts, in two sets, the outer answering 
to a calyx, the inner to a corolla. Fruit a nut; that of the Cocoanut is a good illustra¬ 
tion. The principal Palms of our southern sea-coast belong to the genus ( Chamcerops ) 
Palmetto. 

91. ARUM FAMILY. Order ARACEiE. 

Herbs with sharp-tasted or acrid juice, and more or less fleshy in their texture; 
the leaves either simple or compound, and commonly so much netted-veined that the 
plants might readily be mistaken for Exogens. The small flowers are closely spiked or 
packed on a fleshy axis, forming a spadix. The fruit is a berry, or sometimes dry and 
leathery, but containing some pulp or jelly. The following are the principal genera we 
meet with. 

Spathe present, forming a hood, wrapper, or a petal-like leaf. 

Flowers naked, i. e. without any perianth, monoecious, dioecious, or polygamous, 

Covering only the base of the long spadix, which is enclosed in the hooded 
spathe (Fig. 147). Stem simple, from a rounded corm: leaves com¬ 
pound, of 3 or more leaflets, ( Ariscema) Indian-Turnip. 

Covering the whole length of the spadix. Leaves Simple, arrow-shaped (Fig. 

503) or heart-shaped: spadix on the end of a scape, bearing stamens 
only at the upper part. 

Spathe green, thick, and closely folded around the spadix: anthers sessile. 

Herb growing in shallow water, ( Peltandra) Arrow-Arum. 

Spathe white and petal-like, open, ( Calla) Calla. 

Flowers with a 4-leaved perianth or calyx, perfect, on a globular spadix, surrounded 
by a thick, shell-shaped, purplish spadix coming out of ground in 
earliest spring, some time before the great ovate and heart-shaped, veiny 
leaves; odor that of the skunk. Stamens 4, ( Symphcdrpus) Skunk-Cabbage. 

Spathe none at all; the spadix naked, covered with flowers, which are perfect, with a 
perianth of 6 or sometimes 4 pieces, and as many stamens. 

Spadix on the summit of a scape rising out of the water: leaves oblong, on a long 

petiole, ( Orontium) Golden-Club. 

Spadix from the side of a leaf, or from a stem similar to one of the long and erect, 
linear, 2-edged or sword-shaped leaves: all springing from a sharp- 
aromatic and creeping rootstock, (Acorns) Sweet-Flag. 


206 


FOPULAR FLORA. 


92. CAT-TAIL FAMILY. Order TYPHACEiE. 

Marsh herbs, with linear, sword-shaped leaves (erect, except they float in water), and 
monoecious naked flowers in dense spikes or heads, one sort consisting of some stamens 
only, the other of pistils only. Fruit a one-seeded akene. No spathe, except some open 
bracts or leaves. 

Flowers in one long spike or spadix, the upper part bearing stamens only, the lower slen¬ 
der pistils only closely packed together; ovary long-stalked and surrounded 
by slender down, ( Typha ) Cat-tail. 

Flowers in separate heads, some bearing stamens only, others pistils only, each sur¬ 
rounded by several scales, but no down, (Sparganium) Bur-Reed. 

II. Petaloideous Division. 

93. WATER-PLANTAIN FAMILY. Order ALISMACEiE. 

Marsh or aquatic herbs, with a distinct calyx of 3 green or greenish sepals and a corolla 
of 3 white petals, 6 to many stamens on the receptacle, and many one-ovuled pistils 
collected into a ring or head, becoming akenes in fruit. Leaves mostly oblong-heart-shaped, 
lance-shaped, or arrow-shaped, sometimes with cross veinlets, long-petioled. Flowers on 
scapes. Two genera are common. 

Flowers perfect with about 6 stamens, small, in an open panicle: pistils 15 to 20 in a ring: 

leaves not arrow-shaped, ( Alisma ) Water-Plantain. 

Flowers monoecious or dioecious, in a loose raceme or spike; the sterile ones with many 
stamens; the fertile with many pistils in a head, making thin winged akenes. 

Leaves or some of them generally arrow-shaped, ( Sagittaria) Arrowhead. 

94. TRILLIUM FAMILY. Order TRILLIACEJE. 

Herbs with simple stems rising from a short rootstock, rather conspicuously netted- 
veined leaves in a whorl, and perfect and regular flowers: — containing in this country 
only the genus Trillium and the Indian Cucumber-root, which are here described. 

Trillium.* Trillium. 

Stem bearing at the summit a whorl of 3 broad leaves and one rather large flower. Calyx of 
3 green spreading sepals. Corolla of 3 spreading petals. Stamens 6, with short filaments and long 
erect anthers turned inwards, inserted on the receptacle. Pistil one, 3-celled, commonly with 3 to 6 
lobes or ridges, and making a purple many-seeded berry in' fruit: styles or long sessile stigmas 3, 
spreading. — They all grow in rich woods, and blossom in spring or early summer. 

1. Sessile-flowered T. Flower and the ovate leaves both sessile; petals rather erect, dark dull 

purple or greenish. W. & S. T. sessile. 

2. Recurved T. Leaves narrowed at the base into a footstalk; sepals turned down; petals nar¬ 

rowed at both ends; otherwise like No. 1. W. T. recurvalum. 


* Also called Birthroot, Wake-Robin, and Three-leaved Nightshade. 



POPULAR FLORA. 


207 


3. Nodding T. Leaves nearly sessile, rhombic-ovate ; flower small, on a short peduncle curved 

down under the leaves; petals oblong-ovate, pointed, recurved, wavy. E. & S. T. cernuum. 

4. Erect T. or Birtiiroot. Leaves sessile, round-rhombic 

with a very abrupt point; flower on a nearly upright pe¬ 
duncle ; petals ovate, acutish, spreading, dull purple or some¬ 
times greenish-white. Common N. T. eredum. 

6. Great-flowered T. Leaves' and peduncle nearly as in 
No. 4; petals obovate, erect at the base, then gradually 
spreading much longer and broader than the sepals, white, 
turning rose-color when old. N. and W. T. grandijlbrum. 

6. Painted T. Leaves petioled, pale green, ovate, taper-pointed; 
flower on an upright peduncle; petals lance-ovate, point¬ 
ed, widely spreading, longer than the sepals, wavy, white, 
adorned with delicate pink-purple stripes at the base. Cold 
damp woods, &c. N. T. erythrocarjpum. 

Indian Cucumber-root. Medeola. 

Stem 1° to 3° high, from a white tuberous horizontal rootstock, having the taste of a cucumber, 
bearing near the middle a whorl of 5 to 9 obovate-lanceolate pointed sessile leaves, and at the top 
one of 3 ovate smaller leaves, and a few small greenish-yellow flowers in an umbel, on recurved stalks. 
Sepals and petals each 3, oblong and alike, recurved. Stamens 6: filaments longer than the anthers. 
Stigmas 3, sessile, long and thread-shaped. Ovary one, making a round 8-celled and few-seeded berry. 
One species, in damp woods; flowering in summer. M. Virginica. 

95. SPIDER WORT FAMILY. Order COMMELYNACEiE. 

Tender herbs, with alternate parallel-veined leaves sheathing at the base, and 
f perfect flowers, having 3 green or greenish sepals and 3 petals on the receptacle. 
I Pistil one, with one long style and one stigma. Pod small, 3-celled or sometimes 
\ 2-celled, few-seeded. Flowers opening in the morning for only one day, the 

\\ delicate (generally blue or purple) petals then melting away. There are two 

\ genera wild; and the Spiderwort is cultivated in every flower-garden. 

Flowers regular: the 3 petals and 6 stamens 
all alike: filaments bearded with joint¬ 
ed colored hairs : leaves lance-linear, 
sessile, all alike, ( Tradescantia) Spiderwort. 

Flowers irregular: two of the petals kidney¬ 
shaped on long claws, and one smaller: 
stamens unequal, only three of them 
with good anthers : filaments naked : 
lower leaves with sheathing footstalks, 
the uppermost sessile and somewhat 
heart-shaped, ( Commelj/na) Day-flower. 



508 507 

507. Flower of Spiderwort. 

508. Pistil, magnified; the ovary cut across. 



506. Flower of Trillium, natural size. 




208 


POPULAR FLORA. 


96. PICKEREL-WEED FAMILY. Order PONTEDERIACEiE. 

Is represented by three or four plants in this country, of which much the commonest 
is the 

Pickerel-weed. Pontederia. 

Perianth blue, of 6 divisions, unequally united below into a tube ; the 3 upper divisions most 
united and making a 3-lobed upper lip, the 3 lower spreading and separate some way down, making 
a lower lip: after expanding, for one day only, the upper part coils up and withers away, while the 
base of the tube thickens and encloses the small one-seeded fruit. Stamens 6; the 3 lower on slender 
projecting filaments; the 3 upper inserted lower down on,the tube, with very short filaments and 
generally imperfect anthers. Style • 1 : stigma 3-lobed. Stout herbs in shallow water, with long- 
petioled leaves and long peduncles or few-leaved stems (their leaves with sheathing footstalks, the 
uppermost one merely a sheathing spathe or bract), bearing a spike of flowers. 

1. Common Pickerel-weed. Stems 2° or 3° high; leaves thickish, lance-ovate or ovate-oblong, and 
generally more or less heart-shaped at the base. Common everywhere; fl. all summer. P. cordata. 

97. GREENBRIER FAMILY. Order SMILACEJE. 

Of this family, as here arranged, we have only a single genus, viz.: — 

Greenbrier. Smilax. 

Known at once by being climbing plants (or disposed to climb) and having a tendril on each side 
of the footstalk of the leaf; and by the leaves being veiny between the ribs, almost as in Exogens, 
alternate, sometimes evergreen, simple, and entire. Flowers dioecious, in axillary umbels. Perianth 
generally of 6 equal and spreading greenish or yellowish separate pieces. The sterile flowers have as 
many stamens, with oblong or linear one-celled anthers fixed by their base to the filament, and turned 
inwards. The fertile flowers have a round ovary, with 3 short spreading styles or stigmas. Fruit 
a berry, with 2 or few large seeds. Fl. summer. 

* Stems woody and often prickly, yellowish-green: ovary and berry 2-celled and 2-seeded, black when 

ripe, generally with a bluish bloom. 

1. Common G. or Catbrier. Leaves thickish, round-ovate or slightly heart-shaped, and with 6 to 

9 ribs, green both sides; branchlets often square; prickles short; peduncles of the umbel not longer 
than the petiole. Moist thickets. S. rotundifolia. 

2. Glaucous G. Leaves ovate, glaucous beneath ; peduncles longer than the petiole : otherwise 

nearly as No. 1. S. glauca. 

3. Bristly G. Leaves ovate and heart-shaped, large and thin, green both sides; stem below covered 

with long and weak blackish bristly prickles; peduncles much longer than the petioles. Thickets, 
N. and W. & Mspida. 

4. Laurel-leaved G. Not prickly; leaves lance-oblong or lance-linear, thick and evergreen, with 

3 to 5 ribs; peduncles of the umbel very short. Sandy soil, S. S. laurifolia. 

* * Stem herbaceous, climbing, not prickly: ovary and blue-black berry 3-celled, 6-seeded. 

5. Carrion-flower G. Leaves thin, pale, mostly heart-shaped, with 7 to 9 ribs, sometimes rather 

downy beneath, long-petioled; peduncles 3'to 8' long, longer than the leaves; flowers of the odor 
of carrion. Meadows and river-banks. & herbacea. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


209 


98. COLCHICUM FAMILY. Order MELANTHACEJE. 

Herbs, with parallel-veined leaves; the flowers generally perfect or polygamous; the 
perianth of 6 similar divisions colored alike; the 6 stamens with their anthers turned out¬ 
wards. Ovary one, 3-celled, bearing 3 styles, which are generally separate, but some¬ 
times united into one. Many are acrid or poisonous plants, none more so than the common 
Yeratrum or White-Hellebore, which is often called Poke , a name which properly belongs 
to Phytolacca, p. 191. 

Flower and leaves rising from a corm underground: perianth a long tube, bearing 6 sim¬ 
ilar petal-like lobes, ( Colchicum) ^Colchicum. 

Flowers with a perianth of 6 separate leaves. 

Perianth persisting or withering without falling. Plants acrid-poisonous: flowers 
polygamous, in panicles, terminating the simple leafy stem. 

Divisions of the perianth on claws, bearing the stamens: leaves narrow: flowers 

cream-colored, turning greenish-brown with age, ( Meldnthium) Melanthium. 

Divisions of the perianth without claws, greenish. Leaves oval or oblong, partly 

clasping, plaited, ( Veratrum) White-Hellebore. 

Perianth falling off after flowering. Plants not poisonous: stems generally forking: 

leaves sessile or clasping, ovate or lance-oblong: flowers perfect, generally 
single, nodding: divisions of the perianth long and narrow. 

Styles united into one at the bottom. Perianth large, lily-like, yellowish: fruit 

a few-seeded pod. Flower-stalk not twisted or jointed, ( Uvularia) Bellwoet. 

Styles united into one almost to the top. Divisions of the whitish or rose-colored 
perianth recurved: fruit a many-seeded red berry. Flower-stalks 
single in the axil of the leaves, and with a joint or abrupt bend or 
twist in the middle, ~ ( Strepiopus ) Twist-stalk. 


Bellwort. Uvularia. 

1. Large-flowered B. Leaves oblong, clasping-perfoliate, i. e. the stem appearing to run through 

the lower part of the leaf; perianth pale greenish-yellow, IP long. Rich woods, N. & W. (All 
the species flower in the spring.) U. grandiflora. 

2. Perfoliate B. Like the last, but the flower smaller and yellow, and the anthers more pointed. 

Common E. U. perfolialH. 

3. Sessile-leaved B. Smaller than the rest; leaves sessile, not encompassing the stem; flower 

cream-color. U. sessilifdlia. 


99. LILY FAMILY. Order LILIACE^. 

A large family, with much variety in appearance. Leaves parallel-veined, and sessile or 
sheathing. Flowers perfect and regular ; the perianth of 6 divisions or lobes (or in one 
case with only 4), all colored alike, inserted on the receptacle free from the ovary. 
Stamens as many as the parts of the perianth, with their anthers turned inwards. Pistil 
one, with a 3-celled (rarely 2-celled) ovary and a single style; but with as many stigmas, 
or lobes to the stigma, as there are cells in the ovary. Fruit a pod or a berry. 


210 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Fruit a few-seeded berry: flowers small. Herbs from rootstocks: no bulbs. 

Stems much branched: leaves fine and thread-shaped, in clusters, {Asparagus) * Asparagus. 

Stems simple above ground and leafy. Leaves oblong or lance-oblong. 

Flowers axillary, nodding, greenish; perianth tubular, 6-lobed: stamens above 
the middle, on very short filaments. Rootstock thick, marked with 
broad round scars on the upper side (Fig. 63), ( Polygonatum ) Solomon’s-Seal. 

Flowers in a terminal raceme, white: perianth 6-parted, in one case 4-parted, 
the divisions narrow and widely spreading, the stamens on its base: 
filaments slender, ( Smilacina ) Smilacina. 

Stems or scape simple and leafless above ground; the broad leaves all from its base 
or from the slender rootstock. 

Flowers small, in a slender raceme, white; perianth bell-shaped, 6-lobed (Fig. 3): 

leaves very smooth, ( Convallaria) *Lily-of-the-Valley. 

Flowers rather large, in an umbel, greenish-yellow or whitish: perianth 6-leaved: 

leaves of the plant ciliate, ( Clintonia) Clintonia. 

Fruit a 3-celled pod, splitting into 3 valves when ripe. 

Perianth wheel-shaped, or sometimes erect or bell-shaped, 6-leaved: flowers on a 
scape or nearly naked stem, rising from a coated bulb: seeds round 
and black, few. 

Flowers in a corymb, white: style 3-sided, ( Omithorjalum) *Star-of-Bethlehem. 

Flowers in a raceme, blue or purple: style thread-like, ( Scilla) Squill. 

Flowers in an umbel from a scaly bract or involucre, ( Allium ) Onion. 

Perianth funnel-shaped, bell-shaped, or globe-shaped, more or less united into a tube 
or cup, bearing the 6 stamens, except in some Day-Lilies. 

Scape and leaves from a coated bulb: flowers in a raceme. Leaves narrow. 

Perianth globular, blue, small, ( Muscari) * Grape-Hyacinth. 

Perianth short, funnel-shaped or bell-shaped, 6-cleft, ( Hyacinthus) ^Hyacinth. 

Scape or stem leafy towards the bottom, from fibrous roots (no bulb), bearing a 
few large flowers in a cluster at the top: stamens curved to one side. 

Flower opening for only one day, ( Hemerocdllis ) *D ay-Lily. 

Perianth bell-shaped or funnel-shaped, &c., but of 6 separate petal-like divisions: 
seeds many, mostly flat, pale. 

Simple-stemmed herbs from a scaly or coated bulb: stamens on the receptacle 
or attached to the very base of the deciduous perianth. 

Anthers fixed by their middle and swinging free: stems leafy to the top. 

No honey-bearing spots, or merely a groove at the bottom of each divis¬ 
ion of the perianth. Bulb scaly, ( Lilium) Lily. 

A round and large honey-bearing spot near the bottom of each division 

of the perianth, ( Petilium) * Crown-Imperial. 

Anthers erect on the filament, appearing to be fixed by their base: stem or 
scape leafy only at or towards the bottom. 

Style none or hardly any: stigmas 3 on the long 3-sided ovary, ( Tulipa ) *Tulip. 

Style long: ovary roundish: leaves 2, spotted, ( Erythronium,) Dogtooth-Violet. 

Stems woody, palm-like, or not rising above the ground, from roots or rootstocks 
(no bulbs): leaves evergreen, sword-shaped. Flowers white, tulip¬ 
shaped, in a large, terminal, compound panicle, ( Yucca) Yucca. 


POPULAR FLORA. 


211 


Smilacina (or False Solomon’s-Seal). Smiladna. 

1. Racemed S. Minutely downy, 2° or 3° high, many-leaved; leaves lance-oblong, tapering abruptly 

at both ends, ciliate; flowers many, in compound racemes. Moist grounds. S. racemdsa. 

2. Star-flowered S. Nearly smooth, 1° or 2° high; leaves many, lance-oblong, slightly clasping, 

pale beneath; raceme simple and few-flowered. Moist thickets, &c., N. 8. stellata. 

3. Three-leaved S. Smooth, 3 f to 6 f high; leaves commonly 3, oblong, tapering into a sheathing 

base; flowers several, in a slender simple raceme. Bogs, N. S. trifolia. 

4. Two-leaved S. Nearly smooth, 3' to 5' high, with commonly 2 heart-shaped leaves, the lower one 

generally petioled; flowers in a simple short raceme; perianth 4-parted, reflexed; stamens 4. 
Moist woods, in spring. 8. bifolia. 

Onion (Garlic and Leek). Allium. 

§ 1. Onion proper, with hollow, stem-shaped leaves, and an open, widely spreading, star-shaped blossom. 

1. Garden Onion. Scape naked, much longer than the leaves, hollow, swollen in the middle; 

flowers whitish; umbel often bearing small bulbs (top-onions); the large bulb turnip-shaped. 
Commonly cultivated. A. Cepa. 

2. Chives 0. Scape naked, about as long as the slender leaves; all growing in tufts, from small 

bulbs; flowers purplish, crowded. Cultivated. A. Schcenoprasum. 

§ 2. Garlics and Leeks. Leaves flat or keeled and not hollow, except in No. 3. 

3. Field Garlic. Leaves thread-shaped, slender, round, but channelled on the upper side, hollow; 

bulbs small; umbel bearing flowers with a green-purple erectish perianth, or else only bulblets. 
Naturalized in low pastures and gardens. A. vineale, 

4. True or English Garlic. Bulbs clustered and compound ; leaves lance-linear, nearly flat; 

umbel bearing pale purple flowers with^an erectish perianth, or else bulblets. Cultivated in gar¬ 
dens; not common. A. sativum. 

5. Garden Leek. Bulb single ; leaves linear-oblong, acute, somewhat folded or keeled ; flowers 

crowded in the umbel; perianth erectish, violet-purple. Rarely cultivated. A. Porrum. 

6. Wild Leek. Bulbs clustered, narrow, oblong, and pointed; leaves lance-oblong, blunt, flat, dying 

off by midsummer, when the naked scape appears with its loose umbel of white flowers; pod 
3-lobed. Rich woods, N. and W. A. tricoccum. 


Day-Lily. EemerocdUis. 

* Flowering stems tall, leafy towards the bottom, somewhat branched above: leaves long and linear, 
keeled, 2-ranked: stamens on the top of the narrow tube of the perianth: seeds black and wingless. 

1. Common Day-Lily. Flower dull orange-yellow; inner divisions wavy, blunt. Gardens. E.fulva. 

2. Yellow D. Flower light yellow; inner divisions of the perianth acute. Gardens. E.flava. 

* * Flowering stems naked, simple: leaves broad and flat, ovate or oblong, and often heart-shaped, 

with veins springing from the midrib, long-stalked ; stamens on the receptacle: seeds flat and 
winged. ( Funkia). 

3. White D. Flower white, funnel-shaped; leaves more or less heart-shaped. Gardens. E. Japonica. 

4. Blue D. Flower blue or bluish, the upper part more bell-shaped than in No. 3; leaves scarcely 

heart-shaped. Gardens. E. cceriilea. 


212 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Lily. Lilium. 

*■ Foreign species, everywhere cultivated. 

1. White Lily. Leaves lance-shaped, scattered along the stem; flowers erect; perianth bell-shaped, 

white, smooth inside. L. album. 

2. Bulb-bearing L. Leaves lance-shaped, scattered along the tall stem, producing bulblets in their 

axils; flowers several,erect; perianth open-bell-shaped, orange-yellow, rough inside. L.bulbiferum. 
* * Wild species: flowers orange-colored, reddish, or yellow. 

3. Wild Orange L. Stem 1° to 3° high, bearing scattered (or sometimes whorled) lance-linear leaves 

and 1 to 3 erect reddish-orange open-bell-shaped flowers, the 6 lance-shaped divisions narrowed at 
the base into claws, purplish-spotted inside. Common in light or sandy soil. L. Pldladelphicum. 

4. Wild Yellow L. Stem 2° to 4° high, bearing distant whorls of lance-shaped leaves and a few 

nodding flowers on slender peduncles; perianth yellow or orange, with brown spots inside, bell¬ 
shaped with the divisions spreading or recurved to the middle. Moist meadows, and along streams. 
(Fig. 1.) L. Canadense. 

5. Superb or Turk’s-cap L. Stem 4° to 7° high, only the lower leaves in whorls; flowers many, 

bright orange or reddish, with strong brown-purple spots inside, more recurved and larger than the 
last, but very much like it. Rich low grounds. L. superbum. 

Dogtooth Violet. Erythrbnium. 

1. Yellow D. or Adder’s-tongue. Leaves oblong-lance-shaped, pale-dotted, much blotched; 

flower pale yellow; style club- 
shaped, stout; stigmas united. 

Moist grounds : fl. in early 
spring. E. Americanum. 

2. White D. Flower white or 

bluish; the style less thick 
than in No. 1. Rather com¬ 
mon W. E. albidum. 

3. European D. Leaves ovate 

or oblong, scarcely spotted; 
flowers purple or rose-color; 
style thread-shaped and not 
thickened upwards; stigmas 
separate. Cultivated ; not 
common. E. Dens-canis. 


509. Yellow Dogtooth-Violet. 

510. The bulb. 

511. Perianth laid open, and stamens. 

512. The pistil, enlarged. 

513. Lower half of a pod, cut across and 

magnified. 



510 


509 


511 









POPULAR FLORA. 


213 


100. AMARYLLIS FAMILY. Order AMARYLLIDACEJE. 

Like the Lily Family, but with the (regular or slightly irregular) 6-cleft perianth cohe¬ 
rent below with the surface of the ovary, and therefore in appearance inserted on its 
summit. Stamens 6. Fruit a 3-celled pod. Herbs generally with naked stems or scapes, 
and long linear leaves, from a coated bulb, commonly with showy flowers. Herbage and 
bulbs acrid and poisonous. 

Flower with a cup or crown at the throat of the salver-shaped or funnel-shaped perianth. 

Stamens long, from the edge of the cup-shaped crown: anthers linear, swinging free: 

divisions of the perianth long and narrow, recurved. Flowers white, 
showy; the cluster leafy-bracted, ( Pancratium ) ^Pancratium. 

Stamens included in the cup, unequal: filaments very short. Flowers from a scale¬ 
like spathe, ( Narcissus) ^Narcissus. 

Flower without any cup or crown on the perianth. 

Anthers fixed by the middle and swinging free, linear or oblong: filaments generally 

curved. Flowers large and showy, generally red or pink, ( Amaryllis) * Amaryllis. 
Anthers erect on the filament. 

Flowers in a spike, funnel-shaped, white, very fragrant, ( Polianthes ) ^Tuberose. 

Flowers in an umbel, or single: perianth 6-parted down to the ovary. 

Flower single, from a 1-leaved spathe, white, nodding: three inner divisions 
of the perianth shorter than the three outer, and notched at the end: 
anthers long-pointed, ( Galanthus ) * Snowdrop. 

Flowers one or more from a 1-leaved spathe, white, nodding; the 6 divisions 

of the perianth alike, often green-tipped: anthers blunt, ( Leticoium ) ^Snowflake. 
Flowers few, with 2 small bracts at the base of the pedicels; the star-shaped 
perianth yellow, closing and remaining on the pod. Leaves grass¬ 
like, hairy. Plant smaH, ( Eypoxys ) Star-Grass. 

Narcissus. Narcissus . 

* Tube of the flower slender; the cup or crown much shorter than the 6 spreading divisions; anthers 

borne on the inside of the cup, or 3 of them a little protruding, on short filaments. 

1. Poet’s N. Scape flattish, tall, mostly one-flowered; flower white, the very short and flat crown 

yellow, generally margined with crimson or pink; sweet-scented; leaves bluntly keeled, rather 
glaucous. Gardens. N. poeticus. 

2. Jonquil N. Flowers 1 to 4, on a round and slender scape, yellow, very fragrant, the cup saucer¬ 

shaped ; leaves terete, channelled down one side. Gardens. * N. Jonquilla. 

3. Polyanthus N. Flowers several, on a flattish scape, white, with a bell-shaped cup, not fragrant; 

leaves flat, glaucous. Gardens. N. Tazelta. 

* * Tube of the flower short, funnel-shaped; the cup or crown very large, bell-shaped, with a wavy- 

crisped or toothed margin, equalling or longer than the 6 divisions of the perianth, and bearing 
the stamens on its base. 

4. Daffodil N. Flower one, large, sulphur-yellow, with a deeper yellow cup, on a flattened scape 

1° high; leaves flattish. In all gardens; most common with flowers double, so that their structure 
is obscured. N. Pseudo-Narcissus. 


214 


POPULAR FLORA. 


101. IRIS FAMILY. Order IRIPACEJE. 

Herbs with perennial roots, commonly with rootstocks, bulbs, or corms, and with equitant 
leaves (151, Fig. 64) ; the flowers perfect, regular or irregular; tube of the corolla-like 

perianth below coherent 
with the surface of the 
ovary, and so appearing 
to grow from its summit; 
stamens only 3, one before 
each of the-outer divis¬ 
ions of the perianth; their 
anthers turned outwards, 
i. e. looking towards the 
perianth and opening on 
that side. Ovary 3-celled, 
making a many-seeded 
pod: style one : stigmas 
3, often flat or petal-like. 
Herbage, rootstocks, &c. 
generally acrid or sharp- 
tasted. Flowers generally 
showy, and from a spathe 
of one or more leaf-like 
bracts, or from the axils of 
the uppermost leaves, each 
one generally opening but 

514. Plant of Crested Dwarf Iris. 515. Top of the style and the 3 petal-like stigmas, also 
2 of the stamens. 516. Magnified pistil and lower part of the tube of the perianth, divided 0nC6. 
lengthwise: the foliage cut away. 517. Lower part of a pod, divided crosswise. 518. Seed. 

519. Magnified section of the same, showing the embryo. 

Filaments monadelphous in a tube which encloses the style as in a sheath: stigmas 
thread-shaped: perianth 6-parted nearly to the ovary, widely spread¬ 
ing, opening in sunshine and for only one day. 

Flowers small, blue or purple, with 6 equal obovate divisions: stigmas simple: stems 
or scapes flat or 2-winged, from fibrous roots; leaves narrow and 
grass-like, ( Sisyrinchium ) Blue-eyed-Grass. 

Flowers very large, orange and spotted with crimson and purple; the 3 inner divisions 
much smaller and narrowed in the middle-: stigmas each 2-cleft: 
scape terete, from a coated bulb; leaves plaited, ( Tigridia) *Tiger-flower. 
Filaments separate: stigmas flattened, or petal-like. 

Perianth 6-parted down to the ovary, regular and wheel-shaped, the divisions obovate- 
oblong, all alike, yellow, with darker spots: seeds remaining after the 
valves of the pod fall, berry-like and black, the whole looking like a 
blackberry (whence the common name). Stems leafy below, from a 
rootstock: leaves sword-shaped, ( Pardanthus ) *Blackberry-Lily. 



















POPULAR FLORA. 


215 


Perianth irregularly 6-cleft; 3 of the lobes arched and making an upper lip, the 3 
lower more spreading, yellow, orange, or reddish. Stem rising from a 
corm, and bearing many flowers in a one-sided spike, (Gladiolus) * Corn-Flag. 
Perianth 6-cleft; the divisions of two kinds, the 3 outer recurved or spreading, the 3 
inner alternate with the others, smaller, erect, and differently shaped: 
stigmas 3, petal-like, one before each erect stamen. Generally with 
thick creeping rootstocks, (Iris) Iris. 

Perianth with a slender tube, rising (with the linear flat leaves) from a corm or solid 
bulb (Fig. 76); the summit divided into 4 roundish, equal, erect, or 
barely spreading divisions: stigmas 3, thick and wedge-shaped, some¬ 
what fringe-toothed. FI. in early spring, ( Crocus) * Crocus. 

Iris or Flower-de-Luce. Iris. 

* Common cultivated species in gardens: outer divisions of the perianth with a bearded crest. 

1. Common Iris. Flowers several on a stem, 1° to 3° high, and much longer than the sword-shaped 

leaves, light blue or purple. I. sambucina. 

2. Dwarf Garden Iris. Flowers close to the ground, hardly exceeding the sword-shaped leaves, 

violet-purple, the divisions obovate, the 3 outer recurved. FI. in early spring. I. piimila. 

* * Wild species. 

3. Crested Dwarf Iris. Low and almost stemless, from rootstocks spreading on the ground; leaves 

short; flower pale blue, the tube thread-shaped (2' long) and longer than thespatulate divisions, the 
three outer divisions with a beardless crest. FI. spring. S. and W., and in some gardens. I. cristaia. 

4. Larger I. or Blue-Flag. Stem stout, 1° to 3° high, bearing several crestless and beardless purple- 

blue and variegated flowers, their inner divisions much smaller than the outer; leaves sword¬ 
shaped, wide. Wet places; flowering in late spring. I. versicolor. 

5. Slender I. or Blue-Flag. Stem slender; leaves narrowly linear (P wide), and flower smaller 

than in No. 4: otherwise much like it/*- Wet places, E. I. Virginica. 

102. ORCHIS FAMILY. Order ORCHIDACEiE. 

Plants with irregular and often singular-shaped flowers, the perianth standing as it were 
on the ovary, as in the two preceding orders; but remarkable for having the stamens, only 
one or two, united with the style or stigma. This may best be seen in the Lady’s Slipper, 
of which we have three or four common species: the slipper is one of the petals, in the form 
of a sac. The flowers of various sorts of Orchis are striking and peculiar; but the family 
is too difficult for the young beginner, and therefore the kinds are not described here. 
Fig. 69 represents two air-plants of this family, belonging to tropical countries. 

III. Glumaceous Division. 

103. RUSH FAMILY. Order JUNCACEA). 

The true Rushes are known by having flowers with a regular perianth, which, although 
glumaceous, i. e. like the chaffy scales or husks of Grasses, is of 6 regular parts, like a calyx, 
enclosing 6 (or sometimes 3) stamens, and a triangular ovary. This bears a style tipped 
with 3 stigmas, and in fruit becomes a 3-seeded or many-seeded pod. There are two 


216 


POPULAR FLORA. 


common genera, each with several species: the parts are too small and difficult for the 
young student. 

Pod 1-celled and 3-seeded. Leaves flat and hairy, ( Luzula ) Wood-Rush. 

Pod 3-celled, many-seeded. Leaves generally thread-shaped, or none at all, ( Juncus) Rush. 

104. SEDGE FAMILY. Order CYPERACEiE. 

A large family of Rush-like or Grass-like plants, including the Sedges, Clubrushes, 
Bulrushes, and the like, which have no perianth, but the flowers, collected in heads or 
spikes, are each in the axil of a single glume in the form of a chaff or scale. These plants 
are much too difficult for the young beginner. 

105. GRASS FAMILY. Order GRAMINEiE. 

The true Grasses make a large and most important family of plants, with straw stems 
(called culms , 91) ; leaves with open sheaths; and flowers with 2-ranked glumes or chaffy 
scales, a pair to each flower, and another pair to each spikelet. It includes not only the 
very numerous kinds of true Grasses, but also of Corn, i. e. the Cereal grains, of which 
Wheat, Barley, Rye, Oats, Rice, and Maize or Indian-Corn are the principal; 
also Sugar-Cane, Broom-Corn or Guinea-Corn, and Millet. 


series II. 

flowerless or cryptogamous plants. 

Plants destitute of flowers, and propagated by spores instead of seeds. See 
Part I., Paragr. 165, 308, 312-314. 

CLASS III.— ACROGENS. 

This class includes the Ferns, the Horsetails, and the Club-Mosses. 

CLASS IY. —ANOPHYTES. 

This class includes the Mosses and the Liverworts. 


CLASS Y. — THALLOPHYTES. 

Includes the Lichens, the Alg.e or Seaweeds, and the Fungi or Mushrooms. 



INDEX TO PART I. 


AND 

DICTIONARY OF THE BOTANICAL TERMS 

USED IN THIS BOOK. 


*** The numbers refer to the page where the term is explained or illustrated. 


Abortive: imperfectly formed. 

Abortive Flowers, 69. 

Abruptly pinnate, 52. 

Absorbing, 85. 

Accessory Fruits, 81. 

Achlamydeous Flower: without calyx or co¬ 
rolla, 68. 

Acorn, 79. 

Acrogens, 98. 

^Aculeate: bearing prickles. 

Acuminate: taper-pointed, 48. 

Acute: ending in a point, 48. 

Adherent: naturally united to. ^ 

Adnate: naturally grown fast to. 

Aerial Roots and Rootlets, 34, 35. 

Aggregated Fruits, 81. 

Air-Plants, 35. 

Akene: a seed-like fruit, 78. 

Albumen, of the seed, 14, 83. 

Albuminous: having albumen. 

Alternate (leaves or branches), 25, 54. 

“ in the parts of the flower, 70. 

Ament: a catkin, 61. 

Angiospermous, 76. 97. 

Animal Kingdom, 2. 

Annual: living only one year or season. 
Annuals, 27. 

Anther, 7, 64. 

Antherifcrous : bearing an anther. 

Apetalous: without petals, 67. 

Apple-Fruit, 77. 

Appressed: close pressed together, or pressed 
against another body. 

Aquatic: growing in water. 


Arboreous or Arborescent: tree-like or relating 
to a tree, 37. 

Aril: an additional covering of a seed, 83. 
Aristate: same as awned, 49. 

Arrow-shaped, or Arrow-headed, 48. 

Artificial System of Classification, 96. 
Ascending: rising gradually upwards, 37. 
Assimilation, 87. 

Auricled or Auriculate: bearing ears (auricles), 
or small appendages, 48. 

Awl-shaped: very narrow and pointed, 53. 
Awned, Awn-pointed, 49. 

Axil: the angle betAveen a leaf and the stem on 
the upper side, 24. 

Axillary : situated in an axil. 

Axillary Buds, 24. 

“ Flowers, 59. 

Axis: the trunk or stem, or a line through the 
centre of any organ, 6. 

Baccate: berry-like (from Bacca, a berry). 

Bark, 42. 

Base: that end of any body by which it is at¬ 
tached to its support. 

Beak: a long and narrow tip to a fruit, &c. 
Bearded: beset or fringed with strong hairs or 
beard. 

Bell-shaped, 72. 

Berry: a pulpy simple fruit, 77. 

Biennial: living only tAVO years. 

Biennials, 27. 

Bifid: tAvo-cleft or split. 

Bilabiate: same as tAvo-lipped, 72, 178. 
Bipinnate: same as tAvice pinnate, 52. 





218 


INDEX AND DICTIONARY 


Bipinnatifid: twice pinnatifid. 

Biternate: twice divided into threes. 

Bladdery: thin and inflated. 

Blade of a leaf, 43; of a petal, 64. 

Border of a corolla, &c., 72. 

Bracts and Bractlets, 59. 

Branches, 24. 

Breathing-pores of leaves, 264, 265. 

Bristles : stiff and strong hairs. 

Bristly: beset with bristles. 

Budding, 56. 

Buds, 24, 38. 

Bulblets, 41, 57. 

Bulbous : like a bulb in shape. 

Bulbs, 31, 40, 57. 

Caducous: dropping off very early, as the calyx 
of Poppies and Bloodroot. 

Calyx, 7, 63. 

Campanulate: bell-shaped, 72. 

Capillary: slender and as fine as hair. 

Capitate: headed; bearing a round, head-like 
top; or collected in a head, as the flowers 
of Button-bush, 61. 

Capsule : a pod, 80. 

Cartilagineous or Cartilaginous : like cartilage. 
Caryopsis : a grain or seed-like fruit, 79. 

Catkin: a scale-like spike, as of Birch, &c., 61. 
Caulescent: having a stem which rises out of the 
ground. 

Cells, in vegetable anatomy, 89. 

Cells of the ovary or fruit, 8, 74. 

Cellular Tissue, 41. 

Cereal: relating to corn or com-plants, held by 
the ancients to be the gift of Ceres. 

Chaff: thin bracts, in the form of scales or 
husks. 

Ciliate: fringed with hairs along the margin, 
like the eyelashes fringing the eyelids. 
Circulation in plants, 86, 88. 

Class, 94. 

Classification, 93. 

Claw, of a petal, &c., 64. 

Cleft: cut about half-way down, 49, 50. 
Climbing, 37. 

Club-shaped: thickened gradually upwards. 
Clustered : collected in a bunch. 

Clustered Roots, 36. 

Coated Bulbs, 40. 

Coherent, calyx or ovary, 75. 

Column: the united filaments of monadelphous 
stamens, as of the Mallow (Fig. 317), or 


the stamens and style united, as in the Or¬ 
chis Family. 

Complete Flower, 67. 

Compound Corymb, Cyme, &c., 63. 

“ Leaves, 44, 51. 

“ Ovary, 73. 

“ Pistil, 73. 

Compressed: flattened on two sides. 

Cone, as of the Pine, 82. 

Confluent: when two parts or bodies are blended 
together. 

Conical Root, 36. 

Connate: grown together from the first. 

Connective, of the anther, 66. 

Convolute, leaf, &c.: rolled up. 

Convolute, in the flower-bud, 183, 187. 

Cordate: heart-shaped, 48. 

Coriaceous : of a leathery texture. 

Corm, or Solid Bulb, 40, 57. 

Corolla, 7, 63. 

Corymb, 60. 

Corymbose, or Corymbed: in corymbs, or like* 
a corymb. 

Cotyledons : seed-leaves, 9, 84. 

Creeping, 57. 

Crenate : the margin scalloped, 49. 

Cruciform: cross-shaped, as the corolla of the 
Cruciferous Family, 124. 

Crude Sap, 86. 

Crustaceous : of a hard and brittle texture. 

Cryptogamous, Cryptogamous Plants, 58, 97. 

Culm : a straw-stem, 37. 

Cuneate: wedge-shaped, 47. 

Cupule; the acorn-cup, and the like, 79. 

Cuspidate : tipped with a sharp rigid point, 49. 

Cut: said of leaves, &c., which appear as if cut 
or slit from the margin inwards, 49, 50. 

Cuttings, 56. 

Cyme, 62. 

Cymose: in cymes, or like a cyme. 

Deciduous: falling off, as petals generally do 
after blossoming, or leaves in autumn. 

Declined: turned to one side, or to the lower 
side, 37. 

Decompound: several times compound, 52. 

Decumbent: reclined on the ground, 37. 

Decurrent: said of leaves continued downwards 
on the stem, like a wing, as in Thistles. 

Definite : uniform and rather few in number. 

Dehiscence : the regular opening of pods. 

Dehiscent Fruits, 79. 





OF BOTANICAL TERMS. 


219 


Dentate: toothed; the teeth pointing outwards 
but not forwards, 49. 

Denticulate : toothed with minute teeth. 
Depressed : flattened from above. 

Diadelphous Stamens : united by their filaments 
in two sets, 73. 

Dicotyledonous, Dicotyledonous Plants, 22, 97. 
Diffuse: loosely and widely spreading. 
Digestion in plants, 87. 

Digitate, 51. 

Dioecious Flowers, 68. 

Dissected : cut into fine divisions. 

Distinct: of separate pieces, unconnected with 
each other, 71, 73. 

Divided: cut through or nearly so, 50. 
Divisions, 49. 

Double Flowers (so called), 69. 

Downy: clothed with soft and short hairs. 
Drupe: a stone-fruit, 78. 

Drupaceous: like a drupe. 

Dry Fruits, 77, 78. 

Eared : bearing ear-like projections, or auricles, 
at the base, on one or both sides, 48. 
Elaborated Sap, 87. 

Elliptical: regularly oval or oblong. 
Emarginate : notched at the end, 49. 

Embryo : the germ of a seed, 6, 9, 83. 
Endogenous Stem, Endogenous Plants, 41, 97. 
Ensiform: sword-shaped, as the leaves of Iris 
(Fig- «4). 

Entii'e: the margin even, not toothed or cut, 49. 
Epidermis : the skin of a plant, 44. 

Epiphytes: air-plants, 35. 

Equitant (riding astride), 53. 

Erect, 37. 

Essential Organs of the Flower, 7. 

Evergreen: holding the leaves green over winter. 
Exogenous Stem, Exogenous Plants, 41 - 43,97. 
# Exserted: protruded, or projecting, as the sta¬ 
mens in Fig. 45 

Family, 94. 

Farinaceous : mealy or like meal. 

Fascicle: a bundle or close cluster, 63. 

Fascicled Roots, 36. 

Feather-veined, 46. 

Fertile Flower, 68. 

Fibrous Roots, 27, 36. 

Fiddle-shaped: obovate but contracted on each 
side near the middle. 

Filament (of a stamen), 7, 64. 

15 


Filiform: thread-shaped. 

Fleshy Fruits, 77. — Plants, 31. — Roots, 35. 

Floral: relating to the flower. 

Floral Envelopes, 7. 

Flower, 5, 7, 58. 

Flower-bud : an unopened flower. 

Flower-clusters, 59. 

Flowering Plants, 58, 97. 

Flowerless Plants, 58, 97. 

Flower-stalks, 38, 60. 

Follicle: a simple pod opening down one side 
(Fig. 210), 80. 

Footstalk of a leaf, 43. 

Free: not united with any other part, as when 
the calyx is not united with the ovary, nor 
the petals with the calyx, &c., 75. 

Fringed: the margin beset with bristles, &c., or 
finely cut into slender appendages. 

Fruit, 5, 9, 77. 

Fugacious : falling or withering very early. 

Funnel-shaped, or Funnel-form, 72. 

Generic name: the name of the genus. 

Genus : plural Genera, 94. 

Germ, 6, 9. 

Germinate: to grow from the seed, 11. 

Germination, 11. 

Gibbous : projecting or bulging on one side. 

Glands : a name given to very different things ; 
to little fleshy bodies in some flowers (p. 128 ); 
to places in the leaves of the St. John’s- 
wort, the Orange, &c., appearing like dots, 
which contain a volatile oil; and to the lar¬ 
ger oil-cells in the rind of the Orange and 
Lemon. Also hairs or any projections on 
the surface of leaves or stalks which contain 
or exude any aromatic, glutinous, or watery 
matter, are called glands; as on the leaves 
and footstalks of the Sweet-Brier and of the 
Flowering Raspberry, p. 149. 

Glandular: bearing glands, or gland-like. 

Glandular hairs: hairs tipped with a gland or 
head. 

Glaucous : whitish or whitened with a bloom , or 
fine powdery matter that rubs off, as that on 
a Cabbage-leaf. 

Globose: shaped like a ball or sphere. 

Globular: nearly globose. 

Glomerate: collected into close or a head-like 
cluster. 

Glumaceous : glume-like; resembling or bearing 
glumes. 



220 


INDEX AND DICTIONARY 


Glumes : the chaffy bracts or scales which make 
the coverings of the flowers of Grasses, 
Sedges, &c. 

Gourd-Fruit, 77. 

Grafting, 56. 

Grain, 78, 79. 

Granular: composed of small particles or grains. 

Growth, 89. 

Gymnospermous (naked-seeded), Gymnosper- 
mous Plants, 76, 97. 

Gynandrous: stamens borne on the pistil or 
style, as in the Orchis Family. 

Hairy: bearing or covered with hairs, especially 
rather long ones. 

Halberd-shaped, 48. 

Hastate: same as halberd-shaped, 48. 

Head, 61. 

Heart-shaped, 48. 

Heart-wood, 43. 

Helmet: a name given to the upper sepal of Ac¬ 
onite (Fig. 254), &c. 

Herbaceous, 37. 

Herbarium: the botanist’s collection of dried 
plants. 

Herbs, 26. 

Hilum : the scar of the seed, or point by which 
it is attached, 83. 

Hirsute: hairy with stiff or beard-like hairs. 

Hispid: bearing still stiffer and stouter hairs or 
bristles. 

Hoary: grayish-white, or covered with a fine 
and close whitish down. 

Hooded: shaped like a hood or cowl ; concave 
or arched. 

Horny : having about the texture of horn. 

Hybrid: a cross between two species. 

Imbricate or Imbricated : the parts overlapping; 
some of them outside and others inside in 
the bud. 

Imperfect Flowers, 68. 

Incised : irregularly and rather deeply cut, 49. 

Included: enclosed; not sticking out. 

Incomplete Flowers, 67. 

Incurved: curving inwards. 

Indefinite: too numerous to be readily counted, 
and not uniform in number. 

Indehiscent: not splitting open, 78. 

Indigenous : native to the country. 

Inferior: growing beneath some other organ; as 
the calyx beneath the ovary, 75. 


Inflated : bladder-like, as if blown up. 

Inflexed: bent inwards. 

Inflorescence, 58. 

Inoculating, 56. 

Inserted : borne on, or attached to, 71, 75. 
Insertion : the place or the mode of the attach¬ 
ment of any organ to that which bears it. 
Interruptedly pinnate, 52. 

Inversely heart-shaped, 49. 

“ lance-shaped, 47. 

“ ovate, 47. 

Involucel, 62. 

Involucre, 62. 

Involute : with the end or edges rolled inwards. 
Irregular Flowers, or Corolla, &c., 71, 72. 

Jagged, 49. 

Jointed : separating by a joint, or dividing across 
into two or more pieces. 

Keel: a projecting ridge on the under surface of 
a leaf, as of Hay-Lily, &c. The two lower 
petals of a papilionaceous corolla united are 
also termed the Keel , or Keel Petals, 141. 
Keeled: furnished with a keel or projecting 
ridge on the lower side. 

Kernel of a seed, 83. 

Key, or Key-Fruit, 78, 79. 

Kidney-shaped, 48. 

Labiate: two-lipped, 72. 

Laciniate: slashed; cut into narrow and irregu¬ 
lar lobes. 

Lance-linear, 47. 

Lance-oblong, 47. 

Lanceolate or Lance-shaped, 46. 

Lateral: belonging to, or borne on, the side. 
Leaflets : the pieces of a compound leaf, 51. 
Leaf-buds : buds which develop leaves. 

Leaf-scars, 26. % 

Leaves, 6, 43. 

Legume : a pea-pod, 80. 

Limb of a corolla, &c., 72. 

Lips, 72. 

Linear, 46. Linear-lanceolate, 47. 

Lobed : having lobes, 49, 50. 

Lobes : any strong divisions of a leaf, &c., 49. 
Lower side of a flower: that which looks away 
from the stem, and towards the bract. 
Lyre-shaped, a pinnatifid leaf with the end lobe 
largest and rounded, as in Radish (Fig. 57), 



OP BOTANICAL TERMS. 


221 


Membranaceous: of the texture of membrane or 
thin skin. 

Midrib : the middle rib of a leaf, 44. 

Mineral Kingdom, 2. 

Monadelphous, 73. 

Monocotyledonous, Monocotyledonous Plants, 
21, 22, 97. 

Monoecious Flowers, 68. 

Monopetalous: the corolla of one piece, 72. 
Monosepalous : the calyx of one piece, 72. 
Morphology, 34. 

Mucronate, 49. 

Mulberry, 82. 

Multiple Fruits, 82. 

Naked Flowers, 68. 

Naked-seeded, 76. 

Names of Plants, 94. 

Napiform: turnip-shaped (Fig. 70), 36. 

Natural History, 2. 

Natural System, 96. 

Naturalized: introduced from a foreign country, 
but run wild. 

Nectariferous: honey-bearing. 

Needle-shaped, 53. 

Nerves, Nerved, 44, 45. 

Netted-veined, 45. 

Neutral Flowers, 69. 

Notched, 49. 

Nut, 78, 79. 

Nutlet: a little nut or stone. 

Obcordate : inversely heart-shaped, 49. 
Oblanceolate, 47. 

Oblique (leaves, &c.): unequal-sided. 

Oblong, 46. 

Oblong-lanceolate, 47. 

Obovate: ovate inverted, 47. 

* Obtuse : blunt, 48. 

Odd-pinnate, 52. 

Offset, 39, 57. 

Open Pistils, 76. 

Opposite (leaves or branches), 25, 54. 

Orbicular: circular in outline, 94. 

Order, 94. 

Organs, 5 ; of Reproduction, 5, 58. 

“ of Vegetation, 5. 

Oval, 47. 

Ovary, 8, 65. 

Ovate, 47. 

Ovate-lanceolate, 47. 

Ovules : rudimentary seeds, 8, 65. 


Palmate, 51. 

Palmately cleft, lobed, &c., 50, 51. 

“ veined, 46. 

Panicle, 62. 

Papilionaceous Flower or Corolla, 141. 

Pappus: thistle-down, and the like; the limb of 
the calyx in the Sunflower Family, 165. 
Parallel-veined, 45. 

Parietal Placenta, 74. 

Parted : cleft almost through, 50. 

Parasitic Plants, 35. 

Pedate: like a bird’s foot; palmately divided, 
with the side divisions two-parted. 

Pedicel: the footstalk of each separate flower of 
a cluster, 60. 

Pedicelled: raised on a pedicel. 

Peduncle: a flower-stalk. 

Peduncled: having a peduncle. 

Peltate: shield-shaped, 48. 

Pepo : a gourd-fruit, 77. 

Perennial: living year after year. 

Perennials, 29. 

Perfect Flower, 67. 

Perfoliate: where the stem apparently passes 
through the leaf, as in Bellwort, No. 1 and 

2, p. 211. 

Perianth : the blossom-leaves, 64. 

Pericarp: seed-vessel, 77. 

Persistent: not falling off; remaining after flow¬ 
ering. 

Petal: a leaf of the corolla, 9, 64. 

Petiole: the footstalk of a leaf, 43. 

Petioled: having a petiole or footstalk. 
Phsenogamous (also called Phanerogamous) 
Plants, 58, 97. 

Pine-cone, 82. 

Pinnate, 51. 

Pinnately cleft, lobed, parted, &c., 50, 51. 

“ veined, 46. 

Pinnatifid: same as pinnately cleft. 

Pistil, 8, 65. 

Pistillate Flowers, 68. 

Pitcher-shaped leaves, 121. 

Pith of a stem, 42. 

Placenta, 66, 74. 

Plumose: plume-like; feathered. 

Plumule, 13, 84. 

Pod, 79. 

Pointed, 48. 

Pollen, 7, 64. 

Polyadelphous, 73. 

Polycotyledonous, 22. 



222 


INDEX AND DICTIONARY 


Polygamous Flowers, 68. 

Polypetalous : of separate pefals, 71. 
Polysepalous : of separate sepals. 

Pome: such a fruit as an apple or pear, 77. 
Pouch: see Silicle, 80. 

Prickles, 38. 

Procumbent: 37. 

Propagation from buds, 56. 

“ from seeds, 58. 

Prostrate, 37. 

Pubescent: downy; the surface bearing fine and 
soft hairs, or pubescence. 

Punctate: dotted, as if pierced with minute 
punctures; as the leaves of the Orange and 
Lemon, St. John’s-wort, &c. 

Putamen : the stone of a drupe or stone-fruit, 78. 
Pyxis, 80. 

Race: a variety of a species which may be prop¬ 
agated from seed. 

Raceme, 60. 

Racemed or Racemose: bearing racemes. 
Radiate-veined, 46. 

Radical: belonging to the root. 

Radicle of the embryo, 9, 84. 

Ramification: branching, 25. 

Ray, 61, 165. 

Receptacle of a flower, 63. 

Reclined, 37. 

Recurved : curved outwards or downwards. 
Reflexed: bent backwards or downwards. 
Regular Flowers, &c., 70, 72. 

Reniform: kidney-shaped, 48. 

Repand: wavy-margined, 49. 

Reproduction, 6, 58. 

Retuse: blunted, or slightly indented, 49. 
Revolute: rolled backwards. 

Reticulated: in the form of network, as the veins 
of one class of leaves, 45. 

Rhombic, Rhomboidal: like a rhomb in outline; 

i. e. four-sided with the side-angles obtuse. 
Ribs, 44. 

Root, 5, 34. - 

Rootlets, 5, 36. 

Rootstocks, 31, 40. 

Rose-hip, 81. 

Rotate: wheel-shaped, 72. 

Runner, 39, 57. 

Running, 37. 

Sagittate: arrow-shaped. 

Salver-shaped, 72. 


Samara, 79. 

Sap, 86. 

Sap-wood, 43. 

Saw-toothed, 49. 

Scabrous: with a rough surface. 

Scale-shaped, 53. 

Scalloped, 49. 

Scaly Bulbs, 40. 

Scape : a naked flower-stalk arising from near or 
under ground. 

Scar of a seed, 83. 

Scion, 56. 

Seed, 5, 9, 82. 

Seed-coats, 83. 

Seed-leaves, 9, 84. 

Seed-scar, 83. 

Seed-stalk, 83. 

Seed-vessels, 77. 

Sepal: a leaf of the calyx, 9, 63. 

Separated Flowers, 68. 

Serrate: saw-toothed, 49. 

Serrulate: finely serrate. 

Sessile: sitting ; stalkless, 44, 60, 64. 

Setaceous : in shape like a bristle. 

Sheath : the stalk or base of a leaf, or any body 
enwrapping the stem. 

Sheathing: wrapped around the stem, like a 
sheath. 

Shield-shaped, 48. 

Shrubs, 26. 

Shrubby, 37. 

Silicle : a short silique, or pouch, 80. 

Silique: the pod of the Cress Family, 80, 124. 
Silky: clothed with a coat of fine and glossy, 
close-pressed hairs. 

Simple : of one piece, &c. 

Simple Fruit, 77. 

“ Leaves, 44. 

Sinuate : with a strongly wavy outline, 49. 
Solitary: single, 59, &c. 

Spadiceous : bearing a spadix. 

Spadix, 62. 

Spathaceous: having or like a spathc. 

Spathe, 62. 

Spatulate, 47. 

Species, 93. 

Specific name : the name of the species. 

Spicate or Spiked: arranged in a spike. 

Spike, 61. 

Spikelet: a small spike, or one o# the divisions 
of a compound spike. 

Spines, 37. 



OF BOTANICAL TERMS. 


223 


Spindle-shaped, 36. 

Spiny or Spinose : bearing spines. 

Spores, 58. 

Spur: a slender hollow projection, as that of the 
upper sepal of Larkspur (Fig. 251), the 
lower petal of a violet (Fig. 73), &c. 
Stamens, 7, 64. 

Staminate Flowers, 68. 

Standard of a papilionaceous corolla, 141. 
Stellate: star-shaped. 

Stem, 5, 23, 27. 

Stemless: without a stem, or without one rising 
out of the ground. 

Stemlet, 9. 

Sterile Flowers, 68. 

Stigma, 8, 65. 

Stipel: the stipule of a leaflet. 

Stipules, 43, 54. 

Stock, 56. 

Stolon, 39, 57. 

Stoloniferous: bearing stolons. 

Stone-Fruit, 77, 78. 

Strap-shaped corolla, 165. 

Strawberry, 81. 

Striate: marked lengthwise with fine lines 
Strobilaceous : resembling or bearing a 
Strobile : a fruit like a Pine-cone, 82. 

Style, 8, 65. 

Subclass, 97. 

Subfamily or Suborder; a marked division of an 
order, such as might be considered impor¬ 
tant enough to form a separate order.'’' See 
pp. 139, 146. 

Subgenus: a marked division of a genus, such 
as might perhaps be taken as a separate 
genus. 

Subulate: awl-shaped. 

Succulent: juicy. 

Sucker, 39, 57. 

Suspended : hanging from the top. 
Sword-shaped: erect and sharp-edged lance-lin¬ 
ear leaves, like those of Iris (Fig. 64). 
Superior: above some other part it is compound 
with, as “ ovaiy superior,” 75; on the upper 
side. 

Symmetrical Flower, &c., 69. 

Syngenesious, 73, 164. 

Taper-pointed, 48. 

Tap-root, 36. 

Tendrils, 38. 

Terete: long and round, like ordinary stems; 


same as cylindrical, but it may taper, as 
stems generally do. 

Terminal: belonging to or borne on the summit. 
Terminal Bud, 24. 

Terminal Flowers, 52. 

Ternate : in threes, or divided into three. 
Ternately compound, &c., 52. 

Thorns, 37. 

Thread-shaped, 53. 

Throat of a corolla or calyx : the summit of the 
tube inside. 

Thyrse: a close compound panicle, like that of 
the Horsechestnut, 62. 

Three-valved, &c., 80. 

Thrice compound, thrice pinnate, &c , 52. 
Tomentose: woolly, with a coat of soft entan¬ 
gled hairs or down. 

Toothed: the margin cut into short and sharp 
projections or teeth. 

Top-shaped: conical inverted, or with the point 
downwards. 

Trailing, 37. 

Trees, 27. 

Triadelphous, 73. 

Trifid : same as three-cleft. 

Triple-ribbed: when a stout rib rises from each 
side of a midrib above the base. 
Trumpet-shaped, 72. 

Truncate: as if cut off at the end, 48. 

Trunk, 37. 

Tubers, 29, 40, 57. 

Tuberous or Tuber-like Roots, &c., 36. 

Tube of a corolla, &c., 72. 

Tubular: tube-shaped, or with a tube, 72. 
Tumid : swollen or thickened. 

Turgid: nearly same as Tumid. 

Turnip-shaped, 36. 

Twice compound, 52. 

“ pinnate, &c., 52. 

Twin: in pairs. 

Twining: climbing by coiling, 37. 

Two-lipped, 72. 

Two-valved, &c., 80. 

Umbel, 61. 

Umbellet, 62. 

Unarmed: not spiny or prickly. 

Undershrub: a very low, shrubby plant. 
Undulate: wavy. 

Unsymmetrical Flowers, 70. 

Upper: in a flower, the upper side is that next 
the main stem and away from the bract. 



224 


INDEX AND DICTIONARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS. 


Utricle : like an akene, but with a thin and loose 
pericarp. 

Valves: the pieces into which a pod splits, or 
by which an anther, &c. opens, 80. 

Varieties, 93. 

Vegetable Kingdom, 2. 

Vegetation, 6, 89. 

Veining of leaves, 44. 

Veinlets, 44. 

Veins, 44. 

Veiny: full of veins. 

Velvety: clothed with a coat of soft and fine 
hail's, like the pile of velvet. 

Vertical: upright, or in the direction of the 
length of a thing. 

Verticillate; same as whorled. 


Villous, or Villose: haiiy with long and soft 
shaggy hairs. 

Viscid, or Viscous: glutinous. 

Wavy, 42. 

Wedge-shaped, 47. 

Wheel-shaped, 72. * 

Whorl, 54. 

Whorled, 54. 

Winged: furnished w r ith a broad and thin ap¬ 
pendage or wing-like border of any kind, as 
the seeds of Trumpet-Creeper (Fig. 228), or 
the fruit of Maple, Ash, and Elm (Fig. 206 
-208). 

Wood, 41. 

Woolly: clothed with a coat of long and entan¬ 
gled soft hairs, like wool. 



INDEX 


TO THE 


NAMES OF PLANTS IN THE POPULAR FLORA- 


\ 




Page 



Page 



Page 

Abelmoschus, 


132 

Amygdalus, 


146 

Arrow-Arum, 


205 

Abies, 

201, 

202 

Anacardiaceae, 


137 

Arrowhead, 


206 

Abutilon, 


132 

Anagallis, 


173 

Arrow-wood, 


163 

Acacia, 


143 

Anemone, 


113 

Arum, 


205 

Acerates, 


188 

Anemony, 


113 

Arum Family, 


205 

Aconite, 


113 

Andromeda, 

jt 

169 

Asarum, 


190 

Aconitum, 


113 

Angelica, 

¥ 

159 

Asclepias, 


188 

Acorus, 


205 

Angiosperms or 

Angiosper- 


Ascyrum, 


128 

Acrogens, 

98, 

216 

mous Plants, 

98, 

106 

Asimina, 


118 

Actaea, 


113 

Anonaceae, 


118 

Ash, 


189 

Adder’s-tongue, 


212 

Anophytes, 

98, 

216 

Asparagus, 


210 

Adenorachis, 


147 

Antirrhinum, 


175 

Aster, 


166 

Adlumia, 


123 

Apetalous Division, 

190 

Astragal, 


142 

Alsculus, 


139 

Aphyllon, 


174 

Astragalus, 


142 

Aithusa, 


159 

Apios, 


142 

Atriplex, 


192 

Agrimonia, 


147 

Apium, 


159 

Atropa, 


186 

Agrimony, 


147 

Apocynaceae, 


187 

Aurantiaceae, 


134 

Agrostemma, 


130 

Apocynuin, 


188 

Avens, 

147, 

149 

Alcea, 


131 

Apple, 

147, 

151 

Azalea, 


169 

Algae, 


216 

Apple-of-Peru, 


186 

Bald-Cypress, 


201 

Alisma, 


206 

Apricot, 


146 

Balm, 


179 

Alismaceae, 


206 

Aquifoliaceae, 


171 

Balsam-Apple, 


154 

Allium, 

210, 

211 

Aquilegia, 

113, 115, 

116 

Balsam Family, 


136 

Almond, 


146 

Arabis, 


125 

Balsaminaceae, 


136 

Almond Family, 


146 

Arachis, 


142 

Baneberry, 


113 

Althaea, 

131, 

132 

Araceae, 


205 

Baptisia, 

143, 

145 

Alum-root, 


157 

Aralia, 


159 

Barbarea, 


125 

Amarantaceae, 


192 

Aralia Family, 


159 

Barberry, 


119 

Amaranth, 


192 

Araliaceae, 


159 

Barberry Family, 


119 

Amaranth Family, 


192 

Arbor-Vitae, 


201 

Barren-Strawberry, 


147 

Amarantus, 


192 

Arctostaphylos, 


169 

Basil, 


179 

Amaryllidaceae, 


213 

Arenaria, 


130 

Basswood, 


133 

Amaryllis, 


213 

Armeniaca, 


146 

Batatas, 


184 

Amaryllis Family, 


213 

Aristolochia, 


190 

Batschia, 


182 

Amelanchier, 


147 

Aristolochiaceae, 


190 

Bayberry, 


200 

American Laurel, 

169, 

170 

Arisaema, 


205 

Bean, 

142, 

145 

Amorpha, 


142 

Archemora, 


159 

Bearberry, 


169 

Amphicarpaea, 


142 

Argemone, 


122 

Beaver-Poison, 


158 

Ampelopsis, 


138 

Armeria, 


173 

Bedstraw, 


164 

Amsonia, 


188 

Armoracia, 


125 

Beech, 


198 





I 


226 


INDEX TO THE 


Beech-drops, 

174 

Beet, 

Bellflower, 

192 

167 

Bellwort, 

209 

Benzoin, 

194 

Berberidaceae, 

119 

Berberis, 

119 

Beta, 

192 

Betula, 

199 

Betulaceae, 

199 

Bignoniaceae, 

174 

Bignonia Family, 

174 

Bindweed, 

184 

Birch, 

199 

Birch Family, 

199 

Birthroot, 

206 

Birthwort, 

Birthwort Family, 

190 

190 

Bitter-Cress, 

125 

Bitternut, 

197 

Bittersweet, 

186 

Black-Alder, 

172 

Blackberry, 

150 

Blackberry-Lily, 

214 

Black-Haw, 

163 

Blackthorn, 

151 

Bladder-Cucumber, 

154 

Bladdernut, 

139 

Bladdernut Family, 

139 

Bladder-Senna, 

142 

Blephilia, 

179 

Blite, 

192 

Blitum, 

192 

Bloodroot, 

122 

Blueberry, 

169, 170 

Blue-curls, 

178 

Blue-eyed-Grass, 

214 

Blue-hearts, 

176 

Bluets, 

Boehmeria, 

164 

196 

Borrage, 

181 

Borrage Family, 

181 

Borraginaceae, 

181 

Borrago, 

181 

Bottle-Gourd, 

154 

Bowman’s-root, 

148 

Boxberry, 

169 

Bracted-Bindwced, 

184 

Bramble, 

147, 149 

Brasenia, 

Brassica, 

121 

125 

Breadfruit Family, 

195 

Brooklime, 

176 

Brookweed, 

173 

Broom-Rape Family, 

174 

Broussonetia, 

196 

Brunella, 

179 


Buchnera, 176 

Buckbean, 187 

Buckeye, 139, 140 

Buckthorn, 138 

Buckthorn Family, 138 

Buckwheat, 193 

Buckwheat Family, 192 

Bugbane, 113 

Bugloss, 181 

Bulrush, 216 

Bunchberry, 160 

Bur-Cucumber, 154 

Burdock, 166 

Burnet, 147 

Burning-bush, 139 

Bur-Reed, 206 

Bush-Clover, 142 

Bush-Honeysuckle, 161 

Butter-and-Eggs, 177 

Buttercup, 115 

Butterfly-Pea, 142 

Butternut, 197 

Buttonbushj. 164 

Button-Snakeroot, 166 

Buttonwood, 196 

Cabbage, 125 

Cactaceae, 153 

Cactus Family, 153 

Calla, 205 

Caltha, 113 

Calycanthacese, 152 

Calycanthus, 152 

Cakile, 125 

Camelina, 125 

Camellia, 134 

Camelliaceae, 134 

Camellia Family, 134 

Campanula, 167 

Campanulaceae, 167 

Campanula Family, 167 

Candytuft, 125 

Canterbury Bells, 167 

Capsella, 125 

Caprifoliaceae, 161 

Capsicum, 185 

Caraway, 159 

Cardam’ine, 125 

Cardinal-Flower, 167 

Carolina-Allspice, . 152 

Carolina-Allspice Family, 152 
Carpetweed, 130 

Carpinus, 198 

Carrion-flower, 208 

Carrot, 159 

Carum, 159 

Carya, 197 

Caryophyllaceae, 129 


Cassia, 

143, 145 

Castanea, 

198 

Castilleia, 

176 

Catalpa, 

174 

Catbrier, 

208 

Catchfly, 

130 

Catnip, 

179 

Cat-tail, 

206 

Cat-tail Family, 

206 

Caulophyllum, 

119 

Ceanothus, 

138 

Celandine, 

122 

Celandine Poppy, 

122 

Celastraceae, 

139 

Celastrus, 

139 

Celery, 

159 

Cephalanthus, 

164 

Celtis, 

195 

Cerastium, 

130 

Cerasus, 

146 

Cercis, 

143 

Chaerophyllum, 

159 

Chamserops, 

205 

Chamomile, 

166 

Checkerberry, 

169 

Cheiranthus,} 

125 

Chelidonium,' 

122 

Chelone, 

176 

Chenopodiaceae, 

191 

Chenopodium, 

192 

Cherry, 

146, 147 

Chervil, 

159 

Chestnut, 

198 

Chick-Pea, 

142 

Chickweed, 

130 

Chickweed Family, 

130 

Chimaphila, 

169 

Chionanthus, 

189 

Chives, 

211 

Chokeberry, 

147 

Clubrush, 

216 

Cicer, 

142 

Cichory, 

166 

Cicuta, 

159 

Cimicifuga, 

113 

Cinquefoil, 

147, 149 

Cistacese, 

127 

Cistus Family, 

127 

Citrus, 

134 

Citrullus, 

154 

Clarkia, 

153 

Claytonia, 

131 

Clearweed, 

196 

Clematis, 

112 

Clethra, 

169 

Clinopodium, 

179 

Clintonia, 

210 




POPULAR FLORA, 


227 


Clitoria, 

142 

Clover, 

142, 143 

Club-Mosses, 

216 

Cobsea, 

183 

Cocculus, 

119 

Cockle, 

130 

Coffee-tree, 

143 

Cohosh, 

119 

Colchicum, 

209 

Colchicum Family, 

209 

Collinsia, 

175 

Collinsonia, 

179 

Coltsfoot, 

166 

Columbine, 

113, 115 

Colutea, 

142 

Comfrey, 

181 

Commelyna, 

207 

Commelynaceae, 

207 

Composita?, 

164 

Composite Family, 

164 

Comptonia, 

200 

Conifers, 

201 

Conium, 

159 

Conophalis, 

174 

Convallaria, 

210 

Convolvulaceae, 

184 

Convolvulus, 

184 

Convolvulus Family, 

184 

Coptis, 

113 

Coreopsis, 

166 

Coriander, 

159 

Coriandrum, 

159 

Cornaceae, 

160 

Cornel, 

160 

Cornel Family, 

160 

Comus, 

160 

Corn-Flag, 

215 

Corydal, 

123, 124 

Corydalis, 

123, 124 

Corylus, 

198 

Cotton, 

132 

Cowbane, 

159 

Cowherb, 

130 

Cow-Parsnip, 

159 

Crab-Apple, 

151 

Cranberry, 

169 

Cranberry-tree, 

163 

Cranesbill, 

134, 135 

Crassulacese, 

156 

Crataegus, 

147, 151 

Cress Family, 

124 

Crocus, 

215 

Crotalaria, 

142 

Crowfoot, 

113 

Crowfoot Family, 

112 

Crown-Imperial, 

210 

Cruciferous Family, 

124 


Cryptogamous Plants, 

97 

Cucumber, 

154 

Cucumber-root, 

207 

Cucumber-tree, 

117 

Cucumis, 

154 

Cucurbita, 

154 

Cucurbitaceae, 

154 

Cudweed, 

166 

Culver’s-root, 

176 

Cunila, 

179 

Cuphea, 

152 

Cupressus, 

201 

Cupuliferae, 

198 

Currant, 

156 

Currant Family, 

155 

Cuscuta, 

184 

Custard-Apple Family, 

117 

Cydonia, 

147, 151 

Cynoglossum, 

182 

Cypress, 

201 

Cypress Family, 

201 

Cytisus, 

142 

Daffodil, 

213 

Daisy, 

166 

Dalibarda, 

147 

Dandelion, 

166 

Daphne, 

195 

Datura, 

186 

Daucus, 

159 

Day-Lily, 

210, 211 

Deadly-Nightshade, 

186 

Dead Nettle, 

180 

Deerberry, 

169 

Delphini^n, 

113, 114 

Dentaria, 

125 

Desmanthus, 

143 

Desmodium, 

142 

Dewberry, 

150 

DianthuSj) 

130 

LDicentra? 

123, 124 

Dicotyledons or Dicotyledo- 

nous Plants, 

97, 105 

Dictamnus, 

137 

Dielytra, 

124 

Diervilla, 

161 

Digitalis, 

176 

Diospyros, 

172 

Dipsaceae, 

164 

Dipsacus, 

164 

Dirca, 

195 

Ditchwort, 

156 

Dittany, 

179 

Dock, 

193 

Dockmackie, 

163 

Dodder, 

184 

Dodecatheon, 

173 

Dogbane, 

187, 188 


Dogbane Family, 

187 

Dogtooth-Violet, 

210, 212 

Dogwood, 

160 

Draba, 

125 

Dutchman’s Breeches, 

124 

Dyer’s Weed, 

126 

Ebenacese, 

172 

Ebony Family, 

172 

Echinocystis, 

154 

Echinospermum, 

182 

Echium, 

181 

Egg-Plant, 

186 

Eglantine, 

150 

Ellisia, 

182 

Elm, 

195 

Elm Family, 

195 

Elodea, 

128 

Endogens, 

203 

Endogens or Endogenous 

Plants, 

97, 203 

Epigtea, 

169 

Epilobium, 

153 

Epiphegus, 

174 

Erica, 

169 

Ericaceae, 

168 

Erodium, 

135, 136 

Erythronium, 

210, 212 

Eschscholtzia, 

122 

Euonymus, 

139 

Eupatorium, 

166 

Evening-Primrose, 

153 

Evening-Primrose Family, 153 

Everlasting, 

166 

Everlasting-Pea, 

142, 144 

Exogens or Exogenous 

Plants, 

97, 105 

Faba, 

142 

Fagopyrum, 

193 

Fagus, 

198 

False-D ragonhead, 

179 

False-Flax, 

125 

False-Gromwell, 

181 

False-Indigo, 

143, 145 

False-Mitrewort, 

157 

False-Nettle, 

196 

F alse-P enny royal, 

178 

False-Pimpernel, 

176 

False Solomon’s-Seal, 

211 

Featherfoil, 

173 

Fedia, 

164 

Fennel, 

159 

Fennel-Flower, 

113 

Ferns, 

216 

Ficus, 

195 

Fi & 

195 

Figwort, 

176 

Figwort Family, 

175 







228 


INDEX TO THE 


Fir, 

201, 202 

Flax, 

134 

Flax Family, 

134 

Fleabane, 

166 

TFloating-Heart/ 

187 

Flower-de-Luce, 

215 

Flowering Plants, 

97, 105 

Flowerless Plants, 

97, 216 

F lo wer-of-an-Hour, 

133 

Fceniculum, 

159 

Fool’s-Parsley, 

159 

Forget-me-not, 

182 

Four-o’Clock, 

191 

Foxglove, 

176 

Fragaria, 

147 

F raxinella, 

137 

Fraxinus, 

189 

Fringe-tree, 

189 

Frostweed, 

127 

Fuchsia, 

153 

Fumaria, 

123 

Fumariacese, 

123 

Fumitory, 

123 

Fumitory Family, 

123 

Fungi, 

216 

Funkia, 

211 

Galactia, 

142 

Galanthus, 

213 

Galeopsis, 

180 

Galium, 

164 

Garlic, 

211 

Gaultheria, 

169 

Gaylussacia, 

168, 170 

Geranium, 

135 

Geranium Family, 

135 

Gerardia, 

176, 177 

Germander, 

178 

Geum, 

147, 149 

Giant-Hyssop, 

179 

Gilia, 

183 

Gillenia, 

147, 148 

Ginseng, 

160 

Glade-Mallow, 

132 

Gladiolus, 

215 

Glaucium, 

122 

Glechoma, 

179 

Gleditschia, 

143 

Globe-flower, 

113, 115 

Glumaceous Division, 

215 

Golden-Club, 

205 

Golden-rod, 

166 

Goldthread, 

113 

Gooseberry, 

155 

Goosefoot, 

192 

Goosefoot Family, 

191 

Gordon i a, 

134 

Gossypium, 

132 


Gourd, 


154 

Gourd Family, 


154 

Graminese, 


216 

Grape, 


137 

Grape Family, 


137 

Grape Hyacinth, 


210 

Grass Family, 


216 

Gratiola, 


176 

Greenbrier, 


208 

Greenbrier Family, 


208 

Green-Milkweed, 


188 

Greek Valerian, 


184 

Grom well, 


182 

Grossulacete, 


155 

Grossularia, 


155 

Ground-Cherry, 


186 

Ground-Ivy, 


179 

Ground-Laurel, 


169 

Groundnut, 

142, 

160 

Guelder-Rose, 


163 

Gymnocladus, 


143 

Gymnosperms or 

Gymno- 


spermous Plants, 

98, 

111 

Hackberry, 


196 

Hardhack, 


148 

Harebell, 


167 

Hawkweed, 

Hawthorn, 

Hazel, 


166 

147, 

151 


198 

Heart’s-ease, 


127 

Heath, 


169 

Heath Family, 


168 

Hedeoma, 


179 

Hedge-Hyssop, 

Hedge-Mustard, 


176 

125 

Hedge-Nettle, 


180 

Helianthemum, 


127 

Heliotrope, 


182 

Heliotropium, 


182 

Hemerocallis, 

210, 

211 

Hemlock, 


159 

Hemlock-Spruce, 

Hemp-Nettle, 


202 


180 

Henbane, 


186 

Hepatica, 


112 

Heracleum, 


159 

Hesperis, 


125 

Heuchera, 


157 

Hibiscus, 


132 

Hickory, 


'197 

Iioary-Pea, 


142 

Hobblebush, 


163 

Hog-Peanut, 


142 

Holly, 


171 

Holly Family, 


171 

Hollyhock, 


131 

Honesty, 


125 


Honey-Locust, 143 

Honeysuckle, 161, 162 

Honeysuckle Family, 161 

Hop-tree, 137 

Horehound, 180 

Horse-Balm, 179 

Horse-Bean, 142 

Horsechestnut, 139 

Horsechestnut Family, 139 

Horse-Mint, 179,180 

Horseradish, 125 

Horse-Nettle, 186 

Horsetails, 216 

Hottonia, 173 

Hound’s-tongue, 182 

Houseleek, 156 

Houstonia, 164 

Huckleberry, 168,170 

Huckleberry Family, 168 

Hudsonia, 127 

Hyacinth, 210 

Hyacinthus, 210 

Hydrangea, 157 

Hydrophyllaceae, 182 

Hydrophyllum, 182 

Hyoscyamus, 186 

Hypericum, 128 

Hypopitys, 169 

Hypoxys, 213 

Hyssop, 179 

Hyssopus, 179 

Iberis, 125 

Ilex, 171 

Ilysanthes, 176 

Impatiens, 136 

Indian-Corn, 216 

Indian-Cress, 136 

Indian-Cress Family, 136 

Indian Cucumber-root, 207 

Indian-Mallow, 132 

Indian-Physic, 147, 148 

Indian-Pipe, 169 

Indian-Pipe Family, 169 

Indian Tobacco, * 167 

Indian Turnip, 205 

Ipomaea, 184,185 

Iridacea;, 214 

Iris, 215 

Iris Family, 214 

Ironweed, 166 

Isanthus, 178 

Isatis, 125 

Jacob’s Ladder, 184 

Jasminacese, 189 

Jasminum, 189 

Jeffersonia, 120 

Jerusalem-Cherry, 186 




Jessamine, 

Jessamine Family, 
Jewel-weed, 
Jointed-Charlock, 
Jonquil, 

Juglandacem, 

Juglans, 

Juncus, 

June-berry, 

Juniper, 

Juniperus, 

Kalmia, 

Kentucky Coffee-tree, 
Ketmia, 

Knotgrass, 

Knotweed, 

Koniga, 

Labiatae, 

Labrador-Tea, 

Laburnum, 

Ladies’ Eardrop, 

Lady’s Slipper, 
Lagenaria, 

Lamium, 

Lamb-Lettuce, 

Lambkill, 

Laportea, 

Larix, 

Larkspur, 

Lauraceae, 

Laurel, 169, 

Laurel Family, 
Laurel-Magnolia, 
Lavandula, 

Lavatera, 

Lavender, 

Leadwort Family, 
Leatherwood, 

Lechea, 

Ledum, 

Leek, 

Leguminosae, 

Lemon, 

Leonurus, 

Lepidium, 

Lespedeza, 

Lettuce, 

Levisticum, 

Lichens, 

Ligustrum, 

Lilac, 

Lilium, 

Lily, 

Lily Family, 
Lily-of-the-Valley, 
Lime-tree, 
Limnanthemum, 


189 

189 

136 

125 

213 

197 

197 

216 

147 

201, 202 
201, 202 

169, 170 
143 

133 
193 

193 
125 
178 

169 
142 

153 

215 

154 
180 
164 

170 
196 

201, 202 
113, 115 

194 

170, 171 

194 
117 
178 
131 
178 
173 

195 
127 
169 
211 

141 

134 
180 
125 

142 
166 
159 

216 
189 
189 

210, 212 
210, 211 

209 

210 
133 
187 


POPULAR FLORA. 229 


Linaceae, 134 

Linaria, 175,177 

Linden, 133 

Linden Family, 133 

Linnaea, 161 

Linum, 134 

Liriodendron, 117 

Lithospermum, 182 

Liverleaf, 113 

Liverworts, 216 

Lobelia, 167 

Lobeliaceae, 167 

Lobelia Family, 167 

Loblolly-Bay,- 134 

Locust-tree, 142, 143 

Lonicera, 161,162 

Loosestrife, 152, 173 

Lophanthus, 179 

Lopseed, 177 

Louse wort, 176 

Lovage, 159 

Lucerne, 144 

Lunaria, 125 

Lupine, 142 

Lupinus, 142 

Luzula, 216 

Lychnis, 130 

Lycium, 186 

Lycopersicum, 185 

Lycopsis, 181 

Ly copus, 179 

Lungwort, 181 

Lysimachia, 173 

Lythraceae, 152 

Lythrurtf, 152 

Lythrum Family, 152 

Maclura, 196 

Madder, 164 

Madder Family, 163 

Magnolia, 117 

Magnolia Family, 117 

Manonia, 119 

Maize, 216 

Mallow, 131,132 

Mallow Family, 131 

Malus, 147, 151 

Malva, 131, 132 

Malvacem, 131 

Mandrake, 119 

Maple, 140 

Maple Family, 140 

Marrubium, 180 

Marsh-Mallow, 131 

Marsh-Marigold, 113 

Marsh-Rosemary, 173 

Martynia, 174 

Matrimony-Vine, 186 


Matthiola, 125 

May-Apple, 120 

May-flower, 169 

May pop, ■ 155 

Mayweed, 166 

Maywreath, 148 

Meadow-Rue, 113,114 

Meadow-sweet, 147,148 

Medeola, 207 

Medicago, 142, 144 

Medick, 142, 144 

Melanthacese, 209 

Melanthium, 209 

Melilot, 142, 144 

Melilotus, 142, 144 

Melissa, 179 

Melon, 154 

Menispermacese, 119 

Menispermum, 119 

Mentha, 179, 180 

Menyanthes, 187 

Mertensia, 181 

Mezereum, 195 

Mezereum Family, 195 

Mignonette, 126 

Mignonette Family, 125 

Milk-Pea, 142 

Milkweed, 188 

Milkweed Family, 188 

Millet, 216 

Mimosa, 143 

Mimosa Family, 143 

Mimulus, 176 

Mint, 179,180 

Mint Family, 178 

Mirabilis, 191 

Mirabilis Family, 191 

Mitchella, 164 

Mitella, 157 

Mitrewort, 157 

Mockernut, 197 

Mock-Orange, 157,158 

Molucca-Balm, 180 

Molucella, 180 

Mollugo, 130 

Momordica, 154 

Monarda, 179,180 

Monkey-flower, 176 

Monkshood, 116 

Monocotyledons, or Mono- 
cotyledonous Plants, 97, 203 
Monopetalous Division, 161 

Monotropa, 169 

Moonseed Family, 119 

Morning-Glory, 184,185 

Morus, 196 

Mosses, 216 





230 

Motherwort, 

180 

Mountain-Ash,. 

147, 151 

Mouse-ear Chickweed, 
Mulberry, 

130 

196 

Mullein, 

Muscari, 

175,176 

210 

Mushrooms, 

216 

Muskmelon, 

154 

Musquash-root, 

158 

Mustard, 

125 

Myosotis, 

182 

Myrica, 

Myricaceae, 

200 

200 

Naked Broom-Rape, 

174 

Napsea, 

132 

Narcissus, 

213 

Nasturtium, 

125, 136 

Neckweed, 

177 

Nelumbium, 

121 

Nelumbo, 

121 

Nemophila, 

182 

Nepeta, 

179 

Nerium, 

188 

Nesaea, 

152 

Nettle, 

196 

Nettle Family, 

195 

New-Jersey Tea, 

138 

Nicandra, 

186 

Nicotiana, 

186 

Nigella, 

113 

Nightshade, 

185, 186 

Nightshade Family, 

185 

Nuphar, 

121 

Nyctaginaceas, 

191 

Nymphaea, 

120 

Nymphaeaceas, 

120 


160 

Oak, 

Oak Family, 

198 

198 

Oats, 

216 

Ocimum, 

178 

CEnothera, 

153 

Oldenlandia, 

Oleaceae, 

164 

189 

Oleander, 

188 

Olive Family, 

189 

Okra, 

132 

Onagraceae, 

153 

Onion, 

210, 211 

Onosmodium, 

181 

Opuntia, 

153 

Orache, 

Orange, 

192 

134 

Orange Family, 

134 

Orchidaceae, 

215 

Orchis, 

215 

Orchis Family, 

215 


INDEX TO THE 


Origanum, 

179 

Ornithogalum, 

210 

Orontium, 

205 

Orpine, 

156 

Osage-Orange, 

196 

Osmorrhiza, 

159 

Ostrya, 

198 

Oswego Tea 

180 

Oxalis, 

135 

Oxalidaceae, 

135 

Oxybaphus, 

191 

Paeonia, 

113 

Painted-Cup, 

176 

Palmas, 

205 

Palmetto, 

205 

Palm Family, 

205 

Pancratium, 

213 

Pansy, 

127 

Papaver, 

122 

Papaveraceae, 

122 

Papaw, 

118 

Paper-Mulberry, 

196 

Pardanthus, 

214 

Parietaria, 

196 

Parsley, 

159 

Parsley Family, 

. 158 

Parsnip, 

159 

Partridge-berry, 

164, 169 

Partridge-Pea, 

146 

Passi flora, 

155 

Passifloraceae, 

154 

Passion-flower, 

155 

Passion-flower Family, 

154 

Pastinaca, 

159 

Pavia, 

139 

Peach, 

146 

Pea, 

142 

Peanut, 

142 

Pear, 

147 

Pear Family, 

147 

Pearlwort, 

130 

Pecan-Nut, 

197 

Pedicularis, 

176 

Pelargonium, 

135 

Pellitory, 

196 

Peltandra, 

205 

Pennyroyal, 

179 

Penthorum, 

156 

Pentstemon, 

176 

Peony, 

113 

Peperidge-tree, 

160 

Peppergrass, 

125 

Periwinkle, 

188 

Persea, 

194 

Persica, 

146 

Persimmon, 

172 

Petaloideous Division, 

206 


Petilium, 

210 

Petroselinum, 

159 

Petunia, 

186 

Phacelia, 

182 

Phaenogamous Plants, 

97, 105 

Phaseolus, 

142, 145 

Philadelphus, 

157 

Phlox, 

183 

Phryma, 

177 

Physalis, 

186 

Physostegia, 

179 

Phytolacca, 

191 

Phytolaccaceae, 

191 

Pickerel-weed, 

208 

Pickerel-weed Family, 

208 

Pignut, 

197 

Pilea, 

196 

Pimpernel, 

173 

Pine, 

201, 202 

Pine Family, 

201 

Pinesap, 

169 

Pink, 

130 

Pink Family, 

129 

Pinweed, 

127 

Pinxter-flower, 

171 

Pipe-vine, 

190 

Pipsissewa, 

169 

Pisum, 

142 

Pitcher-Plant, 

121 

Plane-tree, 

196 

Plantagiuaceae, 

172 

Plantago, 

172 

Plantain, 

' 172 

Plantain Family, 

172 

Platanaceae, 

196 

Platanus, 

196 

Plum, 

146, 148 

Plumbaginaceas, 

173 

Podophyllum, 

120 

Poison-Hemlock, 

159 

Poison-Ivy, 

137 

Poke, 

209 

Pokeweed, 

191 

Pokeweed Family, 

191 

Polemoniaceae, 

183 

Polemonium, 

183, 184 

Polemonium Family, 

183 

Polianthes, 

213 

Polyanthus, 

213 

Polygonaceae, 

192 

Polygonum, 

193 

Polygonatum, 

210 

Polypetalous Division, 

112 

Pond-Lily, 

121 

Pontederia, 

208 

Pontederiaceae, 

208 

Poplar, 

200 




POPULAR FLORA. 231 


Poppy, 

122 

Poppy Family, 

122 

Populus, 

200 

Portulaca, 

130 

Portulacaceae, 

130 

Potato, 

186 

Potentilla, 

147, 149 

Poterium, 

147 

Prickly-Ash, 

137 

Prickly-Pear, 

153 

Prickly-Poppy, 

122 

Primrose, 

173 

Primrose Family, 

173 

Primula, 

173 

Primulaceae, 

173 

Prince’s-Feather, 

193 

Prince’s-Pine, 

171 

Prinos, 

172 

Prunus, 

146, 148 

Psoralea, 

142 

Ptelea, 

137 

Puccoon, 

182 

Pulse Family, 

141 

Pumpkin, 

154 

Purslane, 

130 

Purslane Family, 

130 

Pycnanthemum, 

179 

Pyrola, 

169 

Pyrola Family, 

169 

Pyrus, 

147, 151 

Quamoclit, 

184 

Quercus, 

198 

Quince, 

147, 151 

Radish, 

125 

Ramsted, 

177 

Ranunculaceae, 

112 

Ranunculus, 

113, 114 

Raphanus, 

125 

Raspberry, 

149 

Rattlebox, 

142 

Red-Bay, 

194 

Red-bua, 

143 

Red-Cedar, 

202 

Reseda, 

126 

Resedacese, 

125 

Rhamnaceae, 

138 

Rhamnus, 

138 

Rheum, 

193 

Rhododendron, 

169 

Rhodora, 

169 

Rhubarb, 

193 

Rhus, 

137 

Ribes, 

156 

Rib-Grass, 

172 

Rice, 

216 

Robinia, 

142 

Rock-Cress, 

125 


Rocket, 

125 

Rosa, 

147, 150 

Rose-Acacia, 

143 

Rosacea;, 

146 

Rose, 

147, 150 

Rose-Bay, 

170 

Rose Family, 

146 

Rowan-tree, 

151 

Rubia, 

164 

Rubiaceas, 

163 

Rue, 

137 

Rue Family, 

137 

Rubus, 

147, 149 

Rumex, 

193 

Rush, 

216 

Rush Family, 

215 

Ruta, 

137 

Rutaceae, 

137 

Rye, 

216 

Sabbatia, 

187 

Sage, 

179 

Sage Family, 

178 

Sagina, 

130 

Sagittaria, 

206 

Salad-Burnet, 

147 

Salicaceae, 

200 

Salix, 

200 

Salicornia, 

192 

Saltwort, 

192 

Salsify, 

166 

Salsola, 

192 

Salvia, 

179 

Sambucus, 

161, 162 

Samolus, 

173 

Samphire, 

192 

Sand-Spurrey, 

130 

Sandwort, 

130 

Sanguinaria, 

122 

Sanguisorba, 

Sanicle, 

147 

159 

Sanicula, 

159 

Saponaria, 

130 

Sarsaparilla, 

160 

Sarracenia, 

121 

Sassafras, 

194 

Satureia, 

179 

Savin, 

202 

Savory, 

179 

Saxifraga, 

157 

Saxifragaceae, 

157 

Saxifrage, 

157 

Saxifrage Family, 

157 

Scabiosa, 

164 

Scabious, 

164 

Scarlet-Runner, 

145 

Schrankia, 

143 

Scilla, 

210 


Scorpion-Grass, 182 

Scrophularia, * 176 

Scrophulariaceae, 175 

Scullcap, 179, 180 

Scutellaria, 179, 180 

Seaweeds, 216 

Sedge Family, 216 

Sedum, 156 

Self-heal, 179 

Senna, 143, 145 

Sempervivum, 156 

Sensitive-Brier, 143 

Sensitive-Plant, 143 

Shadbush, 147 

Shagbark, 197 

Sheep-berry, 163 

Shellbark, * 197 

Shepherd’s-Purse, 125 

Shin-leaf, 171 

Sicyos, 154 

Sida, 132 

Sidesaddle-Flower, 121 

Sidesaddle-Flower Family, 121 
Silene, 130 

Silver-weed, 149 

Sinapis, 125 

Sisymbrium, 125 

Sisyrinchiura, 214 

Sium, 159 

Skunk-Cabbage, 205 

Smartweed, 193 

Smilaceae, 208 

Smilacina, 210, 211 

Smilax, 208 

Smoke-tree, 137 

Smoke-vine, 123 

Snakeroot, 190 

Snapdragon, 175 

Snowball, 163 

Snowberry, 161 

Snowdrop, 213 

Snowflake, 213 

Soapberry Family, 139 

Soapwort, 130 

Solanaceae, 185 

Solanum, 185, 186 

Solomon’s-Seal, 210 

Sorbus, 147 

Sorrel, 193 

Sow-thistle, 166 

Spadiceous Division, 205 

Sparganium, 206 

Speedwell, 175, 176 

Spergula, 130 

Spergularia, 130 

Spice-bush, 194 

Spiderwort, 207 





232 


INDEX TO THE 


Spiderwort Family, 
Spikenard, * 
Spinach, 

Spinacia, 

Spindle-tree, 

Spinea, 

Spring-Beauty, 

Spruce, 

Spurrey, 

Squash, 

Squaw-root, 

Squill, 

Squirrel-Corn, 

Stachys, 

Staff-tree, 

Staff-tree Family, 
Staphylea, 

Star-flower, 

Star-Grass, 

Star-of-Bethlehem, 

Statice, 

Stellaria, 

Stickseed, 

Stock, 

Stonecrop, 

Stonecrop Family, 

St. John’s-wort, * 

St. John’s-wort Family, 

St. Peter’s-wort, 

Stramonium, 

Strawberry, 

Strawberry-bush, 

Streptopus, 

Stylophorum, 

Succory, 

Sumach, 

Sumach Family, 
Summer-Savory, 
Sunflower, 

Sunflower Family, 

Sweet-Alyssum, 

Sweet-Basil, 

Sweet-brier, 

Sweet-Cicely, 

Sweet-Clover, 

Sweet-Fern, 

Sweet-Flag, 

Sweet-Gale, 

Sweet-Gale family, 
Sweet-Pea, 
Sweet-Potato, 
Sycamore, 

Symphytum, 

Symplocarpus, 

Symphoricarpus, 

Syringa, 

Tare, 


207 

159 

192 

192 

139 

147, 148 
131 
202 
130 
154 
174 
210 

124 
180 
139 
139 
139 
173 
213 
210 
173 
130 
182 

125 
156 
156 
128 
128 
128 
186 
147 
139 
209 
122 
166 
137 
137 
179 
166 
164 
125 
178 
150 
159 
144 
200 
205 
200 
200 
144 
184 
196 
181 
205 
161 

158, 189 
144 


Taxus, 

201 

Tea-Plant, 

134 

Tear-Thumb, 

194 

Teasel, 

164 

Teasel Family, 

164 

Tecoma, 

174 

Tephrosia, 

142 

Teucriura, 

178 

Thalictrum, 

113, 114 

Thallophytes, 

98, 216 

Thimbleberry, 

150 

Thistle, 

166 

Thorn, 

151 

Thorough wort. 

166 

Three-leaved Nightshade, 206 

Thrift, 

173 

Thuja, 

201 

Thyme, 

179 

Thymus, 

lV9 

Thymeleaceas, 

195 

Tiarella, 

157 

Tick-Trefoil, 

142 

Tiger-flower, 

214 

Tigridia, 

214 

Tilia, 

133 

Tiliacese, 

133 

Toadflax, 

175,177 

Tobacco, 

186 

Tomato, 

185 

Tradescantia, 

207 

Trailing-Arbutus, 

169 

Trefoil, 

143 

Trichostema, 

178 

Trientalis, 

173 

Trifolium, 

142, 143 

Trilliaceae, 

206 

Trillium, 

206 

Trillium Family, 

206 

Trollius, 

113, 115 

T rumpet-Creeper, 

174 

Trumpets, 

121 

Tuberose, 

213 

Tulip, 

210 

Tulipa, 

210 

Tulip-tree, 

117 

Tupelo, 

160 

T urnip, 

125 

Turtlehead, 

176 

Tooth wort, 

125 

Twinflower, 

161 

T winleaf, 

120 

Twist-stalk, 

209 

Typha, 

206 

Typhaceae, 

206 

Umbelliferae, 

158 

Umbrella-tree, 

118 

Unicorn-Plant, 

174 


Urtica, 


196 

Urticaceae, 


195 

Uvularia, 


209 

Vaccaria, 


130 

Vaccinium, 

169, 

170 

Valerian, 


164 

Valeriana, 


164 

Valerianaceae, 


164 

Valerian Family, 


164 

Veratrum, 


209 

Verbena, 

177, 

178 

Verbenaceae, 


177 

Verbascum, 

Veronica, 

175, 

176 

175, 

176 

Vervain, 

177, 

178 

Vervain Family, 


177 

Vetch, 


142 

Vetchling, 


144 

Viburnum, 

161, 

162 

Vicia, 


142 

Vinca, 


188 

Viola, 


126 

Violaceae, 


126 

Violet, 


126 

Violet Family, 


126 

Viper’s-Bugloss, 


181 

Virginia Snakeroot, 


190 

Virgin’s-Bower, 


112 

Virginia Creeper, 


138 

Vitis, 


137 

Vitaceae, 


137 

Waldsteinia, 

i 

147 

Wake-Robin, 

Wallflower, 

Walnut, 

206 


125 


197 

Walnut Family, 


197 

Water-Cress, 


125 

Water-Hemlock, 


159 

W ater-Horehound, 


179 

Waterleaf, 


182 

Waterleaf Family, 


182 

Water-Lily, 

120, 

121 

Water-Lily Family, 


120 

Watermelon, 


154 

Water-Parsnip, 


159 

Water-Pepper, 


193 

Water-Plantain, 


206 

Water-Plantain Family, 


206 

Watershield, 


121 

Wheat, 


216 

White-Bay, 


117 

White-Cedar, 


201 

White-Thorn, 


151 

White-Hellebore, 


209 

Whitlow-Grass, 

Wild-Ginger, 


125 


190 

Willow, 


200 




Willow Family, 200 

Willow-herb, 153 

Winterberry, 172 

Winter-Cress, 125 

Wintergreen, 169,171 

Wintergreen Family, 169 


POPULAR FLORA. 


Wistaria, 

142 

Wood, 

125 

Wolfsbane, 

116 

Woodbine, 

162 

Wood-Nettle, 

196 

Wood-Sorrel, 

135 


233 


Wood-Sorrel Family, 135 

Wormwood, 166 

Wytlie-rod, 162 

Yucca, 210 

Yew, 201 

Zanthoxylum, 137 


THE END 

























































0 + 

































